Education.— As already stated, almost the entire population of Belgium adheres to the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism, though fully tolerated and recognized, does not count more than a mere fraction of the people among its adherents. For nearly a century there has raged an incessant struggle over the question of education between the Clerical party on the one side and the Liberal on the other. During numerous political crises the Socialists have thrown their weight into the scale against the Clericals. The position of the Church toward the state is based on the Constitution and cer tain unrepealed laws dating back to 1802. By the former absolute freedom is decreed, no compulsion in regard to religious observances, no state interference with appointment of min isters, all religious marriage ceremonies to be preceded by a civil marriage and salaries of ministers of all creeds to be defrayed by the state. By the older law provincial councils were to provide for the maintenance of cathe drals, episcopal palaces and diocesan seminaries, and the state to provide funds for the con struction of churches and the expenses of religious services. At various intervals these prescriptions have been altered to meet modern conditions, Belgium being no longer a French possession, as she was at the time those laws were passed. During the first decade of Bel gian independence the Catholics had gathered the whole educational system into their hands, when the Liberals began to raise their voices. A compromise was effected between the parties by the Education Act of 1842, by which re ligious teaching became obligatory in elementary schools, with a contracting-out provision for children of other beliefs. This arrangement worked smoothly for the next 25 years, during which the Catholic party appropriated ever-. increasing sums for the 'up-keep of "official° schools, and matters came to a climax with the fall of the Catholic ministry in 1878. Radicals, Freemasons and Socialists united to secularize education; the power of appointing teachers passed into their hands, and anti-clericalists were frequently chosen. The new ministry cre ated a Department of Public Instruction on the basis that public education "must depend exclusively on the civil authorities.° An edu-. cation bill was introduced in 1879* aiming at the abolition of religious instruction and sub stituting therefor a "universal morality.° The measure provoked violent opposition; many thousands signed petitions of protest to Parlia ment; the intervention of the Pope was solicited, but the ministry remained obdurate and the bill became law. M. Frere-Orban, the Premier, severed diplomatic relations with the Vatican; the Belgian bishops prohibited Cath olic children from attending the schools and Catholic teachers from giving instruction in them. Thousands of teachers and children dropped out of the schools, and new school buildings were speedily erected by public sub scriptions, the artisans giving their services free to the task. Within a year the Catholics had established over 2,000 free schools with close on 9,000 teachers, while the state schools had lost more than half of their pupils. Though resorting to all lcinds of tyrannical devices the government was unable to force parents to send their children; even lavish offers of prizes and clothing failed to produce the desired effect. A government commission of inquiry proved equally futile, and the Liberal ministry suffered a crushing defeat in the elections of 1884.
On their return to power the Catholics re pealed the education bill and restored the old system with additional improvements. Stormy scenes were enacted in the chamber. At the ensuing communal elections the Liberals re ceived increased majorities and claimed that public opinion was on their side. Yielding to the clamor the King dismissed his leading min isters and peace was, for the time being, re stored. Since then the Catholic party has re mained in power, revising the educational code in 1895, 1911 and, finally, introchicing compul sory education in 1913. But the conflict over religious or secular education has never been definitely decided. Up to the outbreak of the war the schools were performing valuable service, and the high rate of illiteracy was rapidly diminishing. At the census of 1890 nearly 27 per cent of the population above 15 years of age could neither read nor write; in 1913 it had fallen to slightly over 3 per cent Colleges and middle-class schools bave been es tablished, where a superior education may be obtained. A complete course for the learned profession is provided by four universities, two of them at Ghent and Liege respectively, es tablished and supported by the state; one at Brussels, called the Free University, founded by voluntary association; and one at Louvain, called the Catholic University, controlled by the clergy.
Newspapers and Literature.—There were 2,245 newspapers in Belgium in 1911; of these 112 were daily and 1,061 weekly papers, and 1,072 others. The Belgian newspaper press is not highly spoken of by those who know it best. Baron d'Anethan, then Prime Minister, told the Senate in 18'70 that the management of native newspapers was in the hands of stran gers, as were also, in great part, their editorial departments. (People are falsely led,Th he
stated, (to consider the language of the news papers an expression of public opinion. Their language causes sentiments and preferences which are not ours to be attributed to us in foreign countries.) As but few Belgian news papers make enough profit to pay their way, most of them call themselves organs of this or that political party. While many have a right to make this claim there are others with large foreign circulations which are—or at least were—merely the mouthpieces of foreign gov ernments and not by any means friendly to Belgium. After the Franco-Prussian War French journalists swarmed into the country and gained control of many papers, using their power in a manner calculated to injure Bel gian interests. In recent years a number of journalists, (neither Belgian by birth nor adop tion, obtained control of journals considered important outside 13elgium.° It is stated by one authority (J. de C. MacDonnell, 'Belgium, Her Kings, Kingdom and People') that these journalistic intruders "were mercenaries in the pay of England's enemies, and succeeded in damaging Belgium as well as England by vio lently upholding what they pretended to be Belgian causes, and attacking England as the foe of Belgium.) This statement was written the year before the war, 1913.
Belgian literature, regarded from a national point of view, is a very modern creation dating from the erection of Belgium ass an independent kingdom in 1830. But a purely Flemish litera ture has existed since the 13th century, when that language and the Walloon dialect were spoken throughout the Low Countries. (See FLEMISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE). After the separation from Holland (1830) a strong sentiment of nationality arose in Belgium, to gether with a desire to break away from Dutch traditions. The Flemish language was revived and a literary renascence inaugurated under the leadership of Jan Frans Willems, a freethinker, and the Abbe David, a clergyman. This strange combination worked separately for the same object, and each founded a society to promote it The memory of both is still honor by two literary funds bearing their respective names. At the death of Willems in 1846, his mantle fell upon Henri Conscience, a romantic story writer. Though his tales were of a somewhat childish nature, it is said that he aretaught his countrymen to read." The publication of his 'De Leeuv van Vlanderen) (The Lion of Flanders), gave an enormous stimulant to the literary renascence, which has grown and flour ished in Belgium to this day. Quite a number of Belgian authors write in French; the most celebrated of these is Maurice Maeterlinck (q.v.). The modern school of Belgian writers have largely emancipated themselves from the powerful influence of French style and form and created a distinct type of literature purely national in spirit and atmosphere. The strong est incentive to the (emancipation movement) was given in 1846 by the poet Ledeganck, who protested against neglecting the national char acter and language for those of another coun try. Belgian authors cover the whole field of literary activity — history, biography, philoso phy, economics, poetry, fiction, drama and belles-lettres. Louis Gachard (d. 1885) wrote 16th century history; Charles Rahlenbeck (d. 1903) published a history of Protestantism in Belgium; Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove wrote a big history of Flanders; Alphonse Wauters was a famous archmologist; Emile de Lavaleye was a learned exponent of economics ; F. A. Gevmrt wrote a history and theory of ancient music; Joseph Delbceuf was celebrated for his writings on psychology; Baron de Gerlache wrote a history of the Netherlands; Ernest Nys is recognized as an expert on international law; Georges Rodenbach was the author of that well-known work 'Bruges la Morte' ; the Abbe David already referred to wrote a his tory of Belgium in Flemish; van Rijswijck was a patriotic song writer in the vernacular ; Jan Sleeckx was a renowned dramatist, novelist and literary critic; among dramatists and poets may also be mentioned Charles van Lerberghe, Max Elskamp, Albert Giraud, Jan van Beers, Prudens van Duyse, Edmond Picard, Edouard Smits, Julius de Geyter, Andre van Hasselt, Julius Vuylstace, Ivan Gillcin, Charles Potvin, Emmanuel Hiel, the world-renowned Emil Verhaeren and a host of others. M. Henry Carton de Wiart, Belgian Minister of Justice, is a famous novelist whose masterpiece, (Cite Ardente,) should be read by lovers of beautiful (Frendi) prose. There are many learned so cieties in Belgium, archwological, historical and scientific. The Belgian Academy, whkh is modelled on the lines of the Academie Fran caise, has performed most valuable services in the propaption and encouragement of useful knowledge in Belgium. A number of literary reviews, written and published by Belgians, at tain a high standard of excellence that is quite comparable with their French and Dutch con temporaries.