JOHN B. MCDONNELL, Editorial Staff of The Americana. BYZANTINE EMPIRE, The. Old Byzantium, founded about 688 ac., lay in ruins after its destruction in 196 A.D. until Emperor Constantine the Great rebuilt the city and made it the capital of the Roman empire instead of Rome (hence called also Roma Nova). By zantium was chosen on account of the excel lence of the site. On 26 Nov. 328 the corner stone was laid for the extension of the city walls, and on 11 May 330 the solemn dedication of the new city was made. Two' large tracts in the centre were adorned with colonnades and statues, while in the hippodrome was placed the famous serpent-column from Delphi. The whole empire was robbed of its finest treasures of art to embellish the new residence. The Emperor's palace was a magnificent congeries of buildings. The colonization of inhabitants was promoted by granting the privileges of Old Rome to the citizens of New Rome: the coun cillors were called senators, and the same ad vantages in the way of bounties and amuse ments were afforded the people of Byzantium as had been enjoyed by the Romans. The city soon grew in territory to 14 districts. But the people lacked unity, for the population consisted of colonists from many different races. Never theless, Byzantium was destined to become a seat and centre of learning. The schools of law were soon in a flourishing state. The bishop of Byzantium acquired the rank of a patriarch and laid claims to supremacy over the Oriental Church. Many councils, or conven tions, were held in the city, the most renowned of which are the following: in 381 against the Macedonians, in 553 for the settlement of the controversy over the three capitals, in 680 against the Monotholetes, 692 for the ratifica tion of the older ecclesiastical observances, 754 against the adoration of images, 869 against the patriarch Photius, and in 879 in his favor. After the partition of the empire in 395 Con stantinople became the residence of the Em peror of the Eastern empire. Under the in fluence of an immoral, intriguing court, fond of luxury and display, the people degenerated. Living in idleness on the bounties of bread, and caring for nothing except to gratify their passion for the hippodrome, the people split into two factions, who named themselves, after the color of the charioteers, the •Blues') and the ((Greens," and utterly devoid of higher aims fought each other with passionate hate. Under Justinian I this factional strife increased until finally what is known as the Nika insur rection broke out. This sedition raged from 13 Jan. to 20 Jan. 532, and ended with the massacre of at least 30,000 human beings in the hippo drome by Belisarius. Justinian rebuilt the city
with great magnificence after its semi-destruc tion by fire and embellished it with numerous richly adorned churches, the finest of which was the cathedral, Saint Sophia. The strong fortifications protected the city against the violence of enemies. The Avars, strengthened by Bulgarians and Slays in 626, penetrated sev eral times into the suburbs. In 616 and 626 the Persians under Chosroes appeared before the city walls. The two sieges of the Arabs are particularly celebrated: from April to Septem ber 673, when the city was saved by the Greek fire of the Syrian Kallinikos, and 717-18, when Leo the Isaurian defended it. In 1203 the soldiers of the 4th Crusade marched before the walls of the city to restore to the throne Isaac Angelus, who had been dethroned by Alexius. For a long time the inhabitants defended them selves under the leadership of Theodorus Las caris ; but when Alexius on 18 July cowardly took to flight, Isaac was released from prison and restored to the throne, whereupon the leaders of the Crusade marched into and occu pied Galata. Meanwhile the bitterness of the Byzantines against the Franks led to an insur rection (February 1204), in which Isaac and his son Alexius were killed. The new emperor, Alexius V. Ducas was immedi ately defeated by the Crusaders, who took Con stantinople by storm on 12 April after a stubborn fight. In the sacking of the city, which followed the battle, the most magnificent treasures of art were destroyed, while most of the rest were carried off to adorn Venice and the cathedral of Saint Mark; and an enormous booty was taken. On 9 May the Crusaders elected Count Baldwin of Flanders emperor. But the Latin empire also soon sank into a mere semblance of a realm in consequence of internal strife and of the wars with the Bulgarians and Cumani (who under Asen II in 1236 besieged the city) and on account of the rise in power of the Greek empire of Nima. Nevertheless, the Italian commercial cities ac quired in Constantinople a great influence, es pecially the Genoese and the Venetians, who settled permanently in Galata. But these too grew weak though factional strife and jealousy. After the restoration of the Greek imperial throne through the Palwologi in 1261 the Genoese and Venetians came to open hostilities. On 22 July a Venetian fleet of 75 vessels ap peared before the city, burnt the residences of the Genoese in Galata, and even fired on the town. During the last days of December the Genoese of Galata in retaliation massacred all the Venetians.