About the middle of the t4th century the Othmans began to interfere in the contests for the throne of the Byzantine empire and to threaten Constantinople. After the battle of Nicopolis in 1396 Bajesid besieged the city with great vigor. In 1399 the French Marshal Boucicaut came to its aid, but had to give up in 1401 on account of the approach of Timur. A fresh appearance of the Othmans under Murad II occurred in 1422. He succeeded in taking the outer works. Nevertheless, the great attack of 24 August was repulsed, the siege-works destroyed by a sally, and in 1452 Mohammed II began the construc tion of a coast-tower which closed the Bosporus, and in the spring of 1453 the siege ended. Enormous machines and heavy cannon were brought up. The army numbered 200,000 soldiers and the fleet 250 ships. To oppose these the defender, Constantine XI Dragades, had only 11,000 Greeks and 3,000 Italian re inforcements, which the Genoese, Giovanni Giustiniani, commanded. In addition to this great disparity in numbers was a further dis proportion consisting in the unity of the assail ants and the division among the defenders. In Constantinople embittered religious strife raged between the Orthodox and the Unionists (Henotikoi). But in spite of the inequality in strength the besieged, supported by the natural strength of the position and fortifications of the city, repelled the most violent attacks for 40 days. When the emperor, Constantine, re fused a voluntary surrender, even with the per mission of a free withdrawal of his forces, the city was stormed on all sides, 29 May, and captured. Giustiniani fled, and Constantine met a hero's death in the midst of the battle. In the heat of the conflict the conquerors de stroyed everybody that fell in their path. Those that survived were sold into slavery. The city was completely sacked and numerous treasures of art destroyed. At mid-day Mo hammed marched triumphantly into the subju gated city and offered up prayers of thanks giving in Saint Sophia, which became now the principal mosque. Then he ordered all the dig nitaries of the empire to be driven into one place and cut down. The city was rebuilt, the fortifications restored, and Constantinople be came the capital of the Ottoman empire.
Given in more chronological detail• after the death of Theodosous in 395 the koman empire was divided between his two sons. Arcadius received the eastern and Honorius the western half. The former (395-408) was a weak ruler: he was under the domina tion of his successive ministers Rufinu,, Eutropius and Gainas, the last being succeeded in power by the Empress Eudoxia. In 408 the seven-year-old son of Arcadius (Theodosius II) ascended the throne. He ruled from 408 to 450. The government was ably carried on by his sister Pulcheria during his whole reign, notwithstanding the fact that the Huns under Attila exacted contributions of money and gifts. Pulcheria married Marcianus, who ruled from 450 to 457. This strong emperor refused to comply with Attila's demands. Leo the Thra cian became the next emperor (457-74), and was succeeded by Zeno (474-91), after whose death Anastasius I (491-518), who married Zeno's widow, ascended the throne. The next emperor, Justin, was an Illyrian peasant, who had become an experienced soldier. He reigned from 518 to 527. By the conquests and able administration of the next emperor, Justinian the Great, the empire reached the acme of its prosperity and power. This great ruler en deavored to bring all under one state, one church and one law. He had the Roman law compiled and published under the form of a monumental code. After his death the empire began to decline. His successor, Justin II (565 78), desired to emulate the great Justinian and win even greater glory. But the Persian War exhausted his resources, while the Avars and Slays made incursions on the northern borders and the Lombards overran Italy. In efficient rulers succeeded: Tiberius Constantinus (578-82), Maurice (582-602) and Phocas (602 10). Heraclius ascended the throne in 610 and ruled till 641. By 628 he had restored the empire to its old supremacy. But the provinces had been crushed by the long wars, and when the Arabs began their conquests the emperors were too weak to oppose them successfully. Constans II (641-68) was an able ruler, as was his son Constantine (668-685), who fought bravely against the Mussulmans. But the reign of Justinian II (685-95 and 705-11) was dis astrous. Leo the Isaurian (717-41) preserved the state. He defended Constantinople against the Saracens and reorganized the empire. Con stantine Copronymus (741-75) was a great ruler and succeeded in enlarging the bounds of the empire. He planted colonies along the frontiers and encouraged commerce. The next ruler was Leo IV (775-80), who was suc ceeded by his son, Constantine (780-97), a boy of nine. His mother, Irene, was his guardian until he became of age, after which they ruled conjointly; but in 797 Irene had her son's eyes put out and deposed him, so that she ruled in his stead till 802. The next emperor, Nice phorus I (802-11) paid tribute to the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid, and later was killed by the Bulgarians. Leo the Armenian (813-20) de feated the latter and began a prosperous reign, but was murdered by conspirators. Under Michael (820-29) the Saracens conquered Crete. His son, Theophilus (829-42), was con stantly fighting against the Caliphs. He was celebrated for his justice, and he won great renown for the magnificent edifices he erected.
Constantinople was now the centre of European trade. Theophilus' son, Michael, was only four years of age when he ascended the throne. He later became a drunkard and was put to death at the instigation of Basil, who succeeded him (867-86). Basil was the first of the Mace donian line of emperors. From this time on the government was good, and the empire continued to be prosperous for three centuries. Basil himself was a man of great ability. His son, Leo the Wise (886-912) and his grandson, Constantine Porphyrogenitus (912-59), were authors of considerable ability. Romanus II (959-63), son of Constantine, reconquered Crete under the able generalship of Nicephorus Phocas, who married the sister of Romanus, and became emperor in 963, ruling in the name of his two stepsons until 969. The first of these was Basil II (963-1025) and the second Con stantine VIII (963-1028). Basil defeated the Bulgarians and extended the boundaries of the empire further than any emperor since Jus tinian. On the death of Constantine VIII the husbands and creatures of his daughter Zoe ruled for 26 years: The next two years (1054 56) her sister, Theodora, who was virtuous and able, held the reins of government. In significant rulers were seated on the throne for the next 24 years. The Seljulcian Turks had been rapidly conquering all the Asiatic posses sions of the empire; and the next emperor, Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) had to face also new dangers from the attacks of the Normans and the Crusaders. But the finances of the empire had been weakened by the growth of the Italian cities and the foundation of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Alexius was succeeded by John the Good (1118-43), who fought courageously against the Turks, Hungarians, Serbians and Armenians. Manuel Comnenus (1143-80) undertook many wars, but ex hausted the resources of the empire; and the weak rulers, of the next 24 years brought it almost to ruin. Cyprus was soon lost, Bul garia became independent and the Seljukian Turks menaced Constantinople. The Venetians were hostile and allied themselves with the Crusaders, who coveted the riches of the city. In 1204 Constantinople was captured, and the Latin empire established; but it lasted only until 1261, when Michael Palwologus of Nicza drove out the Latins and re-established a By zantine empire, though smaller than it was in 1204. The Palwologi were unable to strengthen the empire or increase its bounds. Michael VIII (1261-82) endeavored to win allies by offering to bring the Greek Church under the authority of the Pope. His son, Andronicus II (1282-1328), was a weak ruler, and civil war was rife at the close of his reign. Disaster fol lowed disaster. The finances were in a hope less condition, and from now on the emperors were incompetent. The command of the sea was lost, and the Ottoman Turks had already gained a foothold on the ruins of the Seijukian realm in Asia Minor. They conquered the provinces of the Byzantine empire one by one. Under John V (1341-91) the Turks gained their first foothold in Europe. They took Gallipoli in 1354. Manuel II (1391-1425) and John VIII (1425-28) were weak rulers and practically vassals of the Sultan. Constantine )(I (1448-53) contended bravely against the Turks, but was unable to check the invaders and retain his capital— the only part of the empire left — and, finally, in 1453 Constantinople was captured by the This event marked the end of the Byzantine empire.
Of the 107 rulers from 395 to 1453, 20 were assassinated, 18 had their eyes put out, or were otherwise mutilated, 12 died in a monastery or prison, 12 abdicated, 3 died of starvation, 8 in battle, or as a result of accident. Vice and corruption reigned supreme in some periods; the people were servile and superstitious, the government despotic; yet the traditions and civilization of Old Rome were maintained. Frederic Harrison says: °First the Byzantine Empire preserved more of the tradition, civil and military organization, wealth, art and litera ture of the older Rome than existed elsewhere; and, secondly, in many essentials of civilization it was more modern than the nascent nations of the West.° The Corpus of Justinian continued to be the law of the Byzantine empire until the 9th century, when a new code was drawn up. Examples of Byzantine architecture can be found in every Mohammedan and Christian land. In the manufacture of mosaics, silks and embroidered satins, the Byzantine empire sur passed all others.
Bibliography.— Bury, (The Later Roman Empire' (London and New York 1912); Diehl, (Etudes byzantines> (1905) ; id., (Justinien et la civilization byzantine) (Paris 1901); Dieterich, ,Hofieben in Byzanz> (Leipzig 1912); Friday.
of Greece from s.c. 146 to A.D.
(7 vols., Oxford 1877); Gay, J., (L'Italie meri dionale et l'empire byzantine) (Paris 1904); Gibbon, (Decline and Fall of the Roman Em pire); Harrison, (Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages) (London 1900) ; Heyd, (Histoire du commerce du Levant au Moyen Age) (Dessau 1885) ; Holmes, W. G.,