The greater part of China belongs to the temperate zone, only a small por tion of the south lying within the tropics. It has what is called an excessive climate, and has a far greater range of temperature than is usual within the same parallels of latitude. Peking, the capital, is nearly a degree south of Naples, and yet while the mean temperature of the latter is 63°, that of the former is only 54°. In sum mer, however, the heat reaches from 90° to 100° in the shade, while the winter is so cold the rivers usually continue frozen from Decem ber to March. At Hongkong, notwithstand ing the influence of the sea in checking ex tremes, the thermometer in June and July, the hottest monthsrequently stands at 90°, and in D winter, from December to March, sinks nearly to the freezing-point. At Canton, snow, though rarely, has sometimes fallen. At Shanghai, lat. 20', the range of temperature is still greater, the maximum reaching and the minimum falling at least 20° below freezing, or 12° F.
In the south the climate is of tropical character, the summer heat rising to 120°. Here the southwest and northeast monsoons blow with great regularity, and nearly divide the year. In the north they are more variable. The vio lent hurricanes known as ((typhoons* are not uncommon in the Chinese seas.
Geology.— The geology of China is very imperfectly known, but there is no doubt that all the leading geological formations are found in it. Primary formations are most largely de veloped in the mountainous regions of the west, where granite, gneiss and primitive schists pre vail. The same formations exist to a more limited extent in the southeast, where bleak mountains of granite give that district a dis tinguishing feature. The secondary formation, including the carboniferous and cretaceous sys tem, occupies a considerable area, and the coal fields of China are perhaps the most extensive in the world. The Tertiary formation has its largest development in the northeast, and prob ably underlies the greater part of the alluvium which covers the surface of the Great Plain. A surface feature of a great part of northern China is the earthy deposit known as (goess,) which covers an immense area both of mountain and valley, forming a yellowish-brown soil of the utmost fertility.
Mineralogy.— China is well supplied with useful minerals. Gold, though not thought to be very abundant, is obtained by washing the sand of several of the rivers, particularly those of the upper branch of the Yang-tse, and in the mountainous and almost inaccessible regions of Yiinnan. Silver is also found in the same re gions. The quantity suffices for a large annual export, chiefly in payment of various foreign goods. Copper, besides forming the ordinary currency in limited mercantile transactions, is worked to a great extent for economical pur poses. Mercury or quicksilver, in the form of cinnabar, is of frequent occurrence, and is much used both for coloring and medicine. Its poi sonous fumes are even said to be inhaled like opium or tobacco. There is no want of iron either in the form of rich hematite, or in that of the carbonate of the coal-measures, but smelting is not carried on to any considerable extent. Lead, tin and zinc exist, but owing either to a deficiency in quantity, or ignorance of the method of extracting them economically from the ores, the native products short of the consumption. Some authorities reckon the coal-fields of China as equal in value to all the other coal-fields of the world together, and some time they must certainly become of immense economic importance to the country. The area of the coal deposits in the southeastern part of the province of Hunan is about 21,700 square miles. The coal occurs as both bituminous and anthracite, but as most of it Is raised without machinery, by the rudest forms of manual labor, the price is necessarily high, and the quantity mined is trifling. Defective means of communi
cation partly account for the backward state of coal-mining. Coarse mixtures of culm and earth are used as fuel to some extent, while other still more inefficient and less attractive com pounds are employed. Among other mineral substances may be mentioned nitre, alum, gyp sum, and more important than all, inexhaustible beds of kaolin or porcelain earth, the early pos session of which by the Chinese, and their great skill in working it, has given the name of China to the beautiful ware which so long , monopolized the market of Europe. Jade ap pears to be found in China in its most perfect form, and is there held in the highest estima tion, being wrought into trinkets and into orna mental articles of various kinds. Various pre cious stones also are found, and agates especially are admirably wrought.
Zoology.— China is said to possess about 200 indigenous mammals and over 760 birds, most of which are found in adjacent parts of Asia, and some are also European. Among the manunalia are several species of the monkey tribe, one of them being the so-called Cochin China monkey, marked by a striking variety of stripes and colors. Another is the proboscis monkey. Tigers and leopards were at one time so numerous as to have been regularly hunted in state by the emperors, but these animals have been extirpated except in certain localities, es pecially in Yunnan and Manchuria. A small species of wild cat is sought for as game, and served at table as a delicacy. Bears are fre quently mentioned, and their paws are said to be in high request among Chinese gourmands. Other carnivora include the lynx, badger, civet, marten and weasel. The elephant, rhinoceros and tapir occur in some localities of the south west. Both camels and elephants are employed as domestic animals, the former only in the north. Bats are numerous, and one large spe cies is extensively used as food. To themdige nous animals mentioned may be added the wild hog, porcupine, raccoon-faced dog or Chinese fox, and several species of rats, more especially one of a yellow color, larger than those of Europe, and much prized for its skin. Several species of deer are met with, one being the musk deer. In birds, as above indicated, China is extremely rich. Pheasants in par ticular are famous, both for variety and for beauty. Among others are the well-known gold and silver pheasants, the former one of the most gorgeous of the feathered tribe. The pea cock is also indigenous, and fowls akin to our common domestic variety. Birds of prey in clude eagles, falcons, owls, etc. Song birds, such as the nightingale and thrush, are well known and much appreciated. Water-birds of almost every kind abound, such as ducks, geese, swans, pelicans, etc. The mandarin-duck is a Chinese species famed for beauty of plumage. But perhaps the most remarkable water-bird is the fishing cormorant, the training of which forms an important employment, and is so com plete, that when a bird has secured a fish which from its size he cannot manage singly, his neighbor darts down and assists him to com plete the capture. The reptiles of China include several large serpents not regarded as danger ous, and one species at least which is very venomous. Tortoises are common and are often kept in gardens and pleasure-grounds. No country is said to possess a greater number and variety of indigenous fishes than China. All its waters — its rivers, lakes, pools, canals and even ditches— are full of fish. This is partly owing to the artificial means by which the natural supply is vastly increased. Boat-loads of water containing spawn are carried to distant parts and deposited in ponds, where the fry are fed with various species of lentils or -with yolks of eggs.