Railroads, Railway history began in 1876 when the Wu-Sung line was built. The lines in working order are as follows: Shanghai to Wu-Sung (opened 1898) ; Kai-Ping to Pe Tang; from Tien-Tsin to within a short distance of the Great Wall, by way of Chan Hai-Ouan, and with connection to Peking (built by Li Hung-Changs advice; length 298 miles). Of lines conceded and projected in 1897, the list is as follows: (a) The Russian line through Manchuria, with branch to Port Arthur and Niu-Chwang (began in 1897, and com pleted in 1904; length of main line 1,200 miles, branch line 600 miles). (b) The German Kiao Chau line (total length, 621 miles). (c) The Franco-Belgian line from Peking to Han-Kow (the first line to be constructed by Imperial decree). The line will connect with Tai Yuan-Fu and Singan-Fu. (d) The Anglo German line from Tien-Tsin to Chin-Kiang with connections to Tsi-Nan; total is about 620 miles. (e) The English line from Tai-Yuan to Fu-Chau (298 miles) ; and two lines from Shanghai, one in the direction of Su-Chau, Chin-Kiang and Nankin, the other to Hang Chau and Ningpo. (f) The Belgian line from Canton to Han-Kow, with a junction at Hong kong. (g) The French lines from Lavi-Kai to Yfinnan-Fu from Lang-Son to Long-Chau and from Nan-ning-Fu to Peking. An edict in 1911 commanded that all railway trunk lines should revert to government and that provin cial control should cease. The concessions granted for railroads in 1913 include one to a British firm, from the city of Sha-Shi in Hupeh through Honan and Kweichan, a distance with branches of 800 miles, the contract being signed 18 October. On 23 October two railways in Shantung were contracted for by German parties, one to join the Hankow main line. On 24 June 1914 an agreement was made extending the German line to Su-Chau, one of the richest cities in China, and through populous regions especially rich in canals. Another line west ward was provided for, both to form ultimately a part of the state system, after repayment of the loan. To French parties was granted through the Banque Industrielle de Chine, a concession to build a railroad through the south ern provinces, 1,000 miles long from Yam-Chau near Pakhoi on the Gulf of Ton-Kin, through Nan-Kin, to Yfinnan-Fu and to Chung-Kin in Szechuen. The same bank secured in March an agreement to loan $30,000,000 for harbor im provements at Pu-Hau and trolley lines and public conveniences in Peking. On 31 March 1914 the British and Chinese Corporation agreed to a loan of $40,000,000, at 5 per cent for 45 years, for further extensions of the Shang-Hai-Nan-Kin line. Active work in all these enterprises, however, has been for the most part suspended because of the European situation. Inclusive of 1,800 miles in Man churia, the total mileage of Chinese railways in operation in 1915 was 5,960, with 2,273 miles under construction. Railway receipts in 1915 amounted to 50,933,059 taels (a...roximately $33,106,488) ; expenditures, 36,';,916 taels ($23,768,495).
People. The Chinese belong to that variety of the human race which has been called Mon golian, but in them its harsher features, as rep resented in the genuine Tartars, are consider ably softened. The southerners are of low stature, have small hands and feet (the last often artificially made so small in the females as to become a deformity), an olive oryellowish complexion, much modified by the of its exposure to the open air, prominent cheek bones, depressed nose, eyes obliquely turned up ward at the outer extremities, black hair, scanty beard. In bodily strength they are far inferior to Europeans, but superior to most Asiatics, i their great assiduity and anent endurance of fatigue making them hi y prized as laborers throughout the Indian rchipelago. Some of
the finest physical specimens of the race are to be seen among the coolies or porters of Canton. The Chinese are deficient in courage, yet often display great contempt for death. In their moral qualities there is much that is amiable. They are strongly attached to their homes, hold age in respect, toil hard for the support of their families, and in the interior, where the worst kind of foreign intercourse has not them, exhibit an unsophisticated and pleasing simplicity of manners. In the great mass these qualities are counterbalanced, or rather sup planted, by numerous vices treachery, lying, gambling, opium-smoking, etc.
Population. The Imperial treasury depart ment of China in 1910 published an official census of China in connection with a readjust ment of the imposts that are destined to pay its indemnities. ndemnities. It appears from this census that the empire contains 426,000,000 inhabitants, and that China Proper with its 18 provinces contains 407,000,000. In the provinces, the number of inhabitants per square mile is great est in Ho-Nan and least in Kan-Su. In the dependencies the density of population is far less than in China Proper, especially in Mon golia and Turkestan, which are very sparsely populated. The density is 22 times greater in Ho-Nan than in Manchuria. The population of the United States as a whole is about 20 per sons per square mile. The population of China Proper is about 300 per square mile. If the whole population of the United States and 40,000,000 more were crowded into the State of Texas the density of population would be about equal to that of the Yangtse Valley and of the plain extending north and south between the lower courses of the Yangtse and the Hoang rivers. Ngan-kitti but a little larger than New York State has more than three the pop ulation. Che-Kiang province, slightly lets in area than Kentucky, has more than 10 times the number of inhabitants, and between Kwan Tung and Kansas the ratio is 21 to 1.
No census figures based upon official returns are obtainable for the dependencies, and the nature of the population in these regions makes even a close estimate difficult. The data for 1910 may be given approximately as follows: China 407 , 330 ,000 Manchuria 8,500,000 Mongolia 2 , 580, 000 Tibet 6,430,000 Sungari& 600,000 East Turkestan 600,000 426,040,000 Religion. Judging by the multitude of tem ples and joss-houses seen in every quarter, and the endless number of ritual acts performed on high festivals and in the ordinary of life, the Chinese are a most religious people. The religion of the state was for ages Con fucianism, founded by Kung-Fu-Tse or Con fucius, about 550 ac. Another religion is Taoism, introduced about the same time by tsze, and numbering a good many adherents. (See CONFUCIUS ; LAO-TSZE). Among the great mass of the people a form of Buddhism pre vails, or a curious mixture of religious ideas and forms. In the conduct of daily life they are under the dominion of innumerable super stitions, living in dread of demons whom they constantly endeavor to ward off or appease. Their belief in fenig-shui, or the influence of easpects,s works against the introduction of rail roads and other modern improvements. At tempts to introduce Christianity were made by the Nestorian as early as the 6th century, but the celebrity, of the Jesuit missions has thrown all others into shade. The Roman Cath olics now claim to have about 1,000,000 ad herents among the Chinese. Various Protestant bodies carry on missionary operations in China. There are now probably over 50,000 native Protestants. During the Boxer massacres many native Christians were martyred.