coast and some interior val leys are intensely hot and insalubrious. On the elevated plateaux the temperature is that of perpetual spring. The lowest average tem perature in any inhabited part of the moun tainous country is 20° F. The peaks of the Cordilleras are covered with snow al ways. In spite of the equatorial situation of Colombia, the Andes make temperature merely a question of altitude. At Bogota the ther mometer ranges from 55° to 70° F. Alternat ing periods of dry weather and rainy weather, each generally of three months' duration, are Colombia's asummer" and Flora and Fauna.— Vast tracts of forest re main to be explored. It is assumed that rare botanical treasures will be found in their re cesses; and with good reason, since the known varieties of Colombian flora are of exceptional interest. Building, cabinet and dye-woods are plentiful; the rubber-tree, the cinchona, wax palms, cedar, balsam of tolu, lignum vitae, copaiba and mahogany flourish. The aloe, the sarsaparilla and other medicinal plants grow in abundance. Wild animals of the intertropical or higher regions are the puma, bear two species), jaguar, sloth, armadillo, tapir, eer, cavy, opossum and 17 distinct species of monkeys. Serpents are not found at a greater height than about 5,000 feet above the sea, though they are very numerous in the low lands. Characteristic birds are parrots (many varieties), paroquets, cockatoos, lorries, cranes, storks and condor.
Political Divisions and The republic of Colombia consists of 14 departments, 2 intendencies and 7 commissaries. These with their areas, populations and capitals were in 1912 as follows: Of the 5,000,000 inhabitants 10 per cent are pure whites, 5 per cent pure blacks, 40 to 45 per cent aborigines, 30 per cent Cholos (de scendants of Europeans and aborigines), and 10 to 15 per cent mulattoes. The urban popula tion, in the 12 cities of 19,000 or more inhabit ants, may be placed at 500,000; or about 600,000 if we include towns of 6,000. The estimate made by Professor Sievers is, for the inhabit ants of such cities and towns, 10 to 12 per cent of the entire population.
History.—In 1508 the Spanish Crown granted to Ojeda the district between Cape Vela and the Gulf of Darien, and to Nicuesa the country from the Gulf of Darien to Cape Gracias Dios. The two territories were united in 1514. Balboa's discovery of the °Southern was followed by the removal of colonists to the Pacific Coast and the founding of the city of Panama. Starting from Santa Marta 6 Aug. 15.36, Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada led 700 infantry and 80 horsemen into the mountains of New Granada (now Colombia), and took the Indian capital Bogota. Colonies were estab lished in the table-lands and along the coasts. The city of Medina was founded in 1670 by Fray Alonzo Ronquillo of the order of Preach ing Friars. In 1719 the natives destroyed the Spanish colonies on the Pacific slope. New Granada became a vice-royalty in 1740, having been administered previously as a simple presi dency, except in 1718-19. In 1810 an insurrec tion against the government of Spain began. In 1819 New Granada and Venezuela were united, Ecuador joining the union two years later. The country thus formed was called the republic of Colombia. The efforts of Spain to retain these colonies ceased in 1824. Six years later the Colombian union was dissolved, Venezuela and Ecuador having withdrawn i and the republic of New Granada was established in 1831, its territory corresponding to that of the present republic of Colombia. New Gra nada was at first divided into five departments, namely: Boyaci, Cauca, Cundinamarca, the Isthmus and Magdalena. Lack of coherence caused a civil war in 1840; Panama and Ver agua unsuccessfully sought independence in 1841. From 1849 to 1857 the Liberal party controlled the government. In 1853 the right was granted to the departments to elect their governors by popular vote, and the powers of the provincial legislative bodies were increased. New political divisions were organized soon afterward. These claimed, and taught the older departments to claim, the privileges of semi-independent states. A civil war, beginning in 1859, resulted in a triumph for the Liberal (States' Rights) party. Under the constitution of 1863 the name Colom bia was reverted to, the official title being United States of Colombia. Nine sovereign states were formed, each authorized to main tain its own military forces without restriction, and to nullify the federal laws.. Insurrections prevented steady progress until a reasonable degree of federal control was asserted. In 1880, Rafael Nunez became President. His in
fluence secured to the national government the right to use its forces for the suppression of insurrections in the several states. A national (government) bank was incorporated; diplo matic relations were established with Spain ; the question of the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela was submitted to arbitration.
Nufiez held the same office, which he made im portant, again in 1884 and 1886. In 1891 he was elected for the fourth time, but allowed Vice President Caro to assume his duties.
A new constitution was adopted in 1886. By this the states were reduced to departments, with governors appointed by the President of the republic, and legislative assemblies elected by the people. The President's term of office was extended from two to six years. Colombia passed from the extreme of a loose federation to a centralized republic. Subsequent revolu tions have shown the desire of the Liberals to return to the old irresponsibility. In 1892 sub sidies were granted for the construction of several important railways, and new cable lines along the coast and telegraph lines in the in terior were authorized. Two years later a law was passed providing for the free coinage of gold and the redemption of the paper currency. Very little progress was made, however; on the contrary the means of communication and transportation, as well as the medium of ex change, displayed a tendency to go from bad to worse. The rebellion of 1895 was suppressed in 45 days, but a civil war which broke out 17 Oct. 1899 proved to be more ruinous than any preceding conflict. The Liberals attempted, by force of arms, to drive the Conservatives from power. An issue which, in a republic, should be settled at the polls, cost the lives of 50,000 soldiers, while among the wretched non-com batants the number of deaths from privation and disease was vastly greater. As usual, the department of Panama was a centre of dis turbance. American marines were landed to guard the stations and railway at Col6n and Panama, in accordance with the treaty of 1846 between the United States and New Granada, by the terms of which the United States guar anteed the neutrality of the isthmus and as sumed the obligation to protect free transit between the ports mentioned. Toward the end of 1902 the flame of civil war finally went out. The government was almost destitute of money; it could neither 'pay interest on the national debt nor meet current expenses. Congressional elections were held throughout the country. The most important matter to come before Congress was the question of ratifying a con vention concluded at Washington 22 Jan. 1903, between the Secretary of State of the United States of America and the chargi-d'affaires of Colombia, for the construction of a ship canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The French Panama Company, formed in 1881, had suspended operations in 1889, and in 1894 a new company had been organized, securing a con cession for 10 years, which term was subse quently extended by six years. The board of this company had offered (4 Jan. 1902) to sell all its property and rights to the United States for $40,000,000. The Panama route had been approved by the Isthmian Canal Commission of the United States. After a long discussion in the Senate of the United States, the convention was submitted to the Colombian Congress, the constitution of 1886 providing that ratification by both Houses is requisite for the validity of such an agreement as that relating to the Panama Canal. The convention, commonly known as the Hay-Herran treaty, was defeated at Bogota, 24 members of the Senate voting on 12 Aug. 1903 to reject it. A counter proposition prepared by a conunission (29 August) was debated for a while, but not adopted. The adjournment of the Colombia Congress on 31 October was followed almost immediately by the outbreak of a carefully planned °Separatist)) movement in Panama. Independence was proclaimed 3 November and Colombian army and navy officers in the prin cipal city of that department were imprisoned. A provisional goverrunent was organized. American warships were ordered to the Isth mus; marines landed at Colon; and the Colom bian troops withdrew from that town. On 6 November the government of the United States entered into relations with the government of the republic of Panama, and on 13 November M. Philippe Bonau-Varilla was formally received by President Roosevelt as minister of the new country. At that time hostile demonstrations against the Colombian government occurred at Bogota, and another revolution seemed im minent.