The old doctrine of,the sovereignty of de partments has been nrected in favor of the centralized system. The brief sketch which follows shows the leading provisions of the constitution adopted in 1886 and transformed by amendments in more recent years: The executive overshadows the legislature and judiciary. (Contrast: CHILE - Govern ment). Appointed by the President and freely removable by him, are the ministers of state and government, foreign relations, hacienda or exchequer (in charge of government revenues), treasury (in charge of disbursements), war, public works and education. These ministers are also responsible to the legislature. Natu rally, then, frequent shifts and changes in the ministry are the rule "and rarely," says Mr. Eder, "is a minister in office long enough to build up his department or carry out his own policies." The governors of departments (the main political divisions of the republic) are appointed by the President and retain office by retention of his favor. The governors, in their turn, designate and control both the prefects of the provinces (the main subdivisions of depart ments) and the alcaldes of the municipalities ; and thus, mediately or immediately, officials throughout the country are dominated by the central executive at Bogota. The only provision made for home rule is found in the limited powers of the departmental assemblies and municipal boards, both elected by popular vote. The revenues of the departments are inade quate to support efficient local administration. Departments and municipalities (with the ex ception of a few large cities that have special sources of revenue) levy what little they can by indirect taxes, often of an unwise and hampering character. This economic helpless ness of the departments increases and em phasizes their dependence upon the national government, which has at least its revenue from customs duties, mines, stamped paper, etc. So all power is centralized at Bogota.
Sessions of the Senate and House of Repre sentatives, forming the Congress, are held annually. "Presidents have exercised the right, instead of having elections for Congress, of convoking a National Assembly, the member ship of which has been appointed by the de partmental assemblies, upon which pressure can be somewhat more readily exerted by the executive than upon a direct vote at honestly conducted polls. The distinction between a Congress and a National Assembly is somewhat hard for the foreigner to grasp, especially as the constitution makes no provision for the latter body; but it is held that the right of the sovereign people to assemble is inherent and superior even to the constitution itself." It was stated in the preamble of the executive decree convoking such an assembly in 1905 that the basis for an act of such transcendent im portance must be sought, not in the constitu tion but in the supreme law of necessity. Such an assembly can, indeed, amend the constitu tion without the more deliberate proceedings which that instrument prescribes. The con stitution may be amended only by a legislative act first discussed and approved by the Con gress in the usual manner, and in like manner considered at the next succeeding annual session and thereat approved by both chambers, after second and third hearings, by an absolute majority of the whole membership of each of the chambers.
The Judiciary and the Codes.—The Su preme Court has nine members, four elected by the Senate and five by the House of Repre sentatives. In each case the term is five years,
and nominations are made by the President of the republic. The Supreme Court magis trates appoint, as judges of the Superior Courts, the nominees of the departniental assemblies. Municipal judges, however, are elected by the local boards. The Commercial and Maritime Commercial codes are chiefly based on Spanish law, though the influence of French law is not to be overlooked. The same influence strongly affects the Penal Code, and the Civil Code is founded on the Code Napoleon. The title "doctor" is commonly bestowed upon lawyers of prominence or university training.
Education and Religion.— Colombia has long claimed to be the most literary country in Latin America. The best of her scholars and writers have been regarded at home and in the mother country as inferior only to those of Spain among the peoples using the Castilian tongue. But in spite of this distinction, it is only lately that the nation has come to realize the importance of educating the mass. Now, how ever, the direction of the educational system of the whole republic is in the hands of the Minister of Public Instruction. In 1916 there were in Colombia 5,137 primary schools and 5,733 teachers with 325,756 pupils. Most of the secondary schools are as yet entrusted to the corporations of the Catholic Church, which is by law the established religion of the republic; and as such are financially assisted in the work of education by the national treasury. In 1916 there were 344 secondary and professional schools with 29,138 pupils; and in addition to these, 43 art and trade schools with 2,380 pupils; and several higher colleges and universities. —Of these the oldest is the University of Bogota, founded in 1572, which with the School of Mines at Medellin are national institutions. Several of the political departments maintain universities. Among these are the universities at Medellin, Cartagena, Popayan and Pasto. In the 28 normal schools of the republic there were, in 1914, nearly 2,000 students. There are also schools of mines at Pasto and Medellin where pupils are graduated as engineers. The amount devoted to education in Colombia is be ing increased from year to year. The amount expended for this purpose in 1914 was 3,445,225 pesos, the greater part of which came from the treasuries of the various departments. There are numerous libraries and museums through . out the country and a national museum, national library and national observatory at the capital, Bogota. The University of Cartagena, depart ment of Bolivar, comprises five "schools," de voted to philosophy and letters, science, medi cine and the natural sciences, law and political science and mathematics and civil engineering. A school of mines is maintained by the national government at Mtdellin, capital of the depart ' ment of Antioquia. According to the report of the director of education 266 primary schools, public and private, gave instruction, in the de partment of Cartagena, in 1916 to about 12,250 students, with an average attendance of 8,059. Primary education is free, but not compulsory. The private schools are generally superior in instruction to the primary public educational institutions and are attended by children of the upper classes. In Colombia there are four Catholic archbishops : of Bogota, Cartagena, Medellin and Popayan, the first of which has four suffragans, and each of the others two, among which is that of Panama, attached to Cartagena.