COMBES, koomz, Justin Louis Emile, French statesman: b. Roquecourbe, Tarn, France, 6 Sept 1835. He was educated in a Ro man Catholic seminary for the priesthood, but subsequently studied medicine, and be gan practice in Pons, where he filled various posts of responsibility, such as those of mayor and county councillor. In 1885 he was elected to the Senate, of which he was vice-president 1893-9.4, becoming Minister of Public Instruc tion in 1895. He has been active in the re organization of primary and secondary edu cation. In June 1902 he succeeded Waldeck Rousseau as President du Conseil des Minis tres. In this capacity he has enforced the Asso ciation Act, abolishing liberty of teaching in France and aimed at the clergy. The law against the religious orders was enforced with great severity, and over 500 teaching, preach ing and commercial orders were suppressed under the Combes regime. His opponents have claimed that this has been done with needless severity. It has caused widespread disturbances
throughout the country. On his becoming Prime Minister, M. Combes announced his in tention to reduce the period of military service to two years, and to establish a general income tax. Steps were also taken during his ministry which were to lead later to the separation of Church and State. In spite of the fact that M. Combes was upheld by the Chamber in all his acts, he resigned in 1905 because of the intense bitterness which these acts aroused among the Conservatives. M. Combes is a latter-day Vol taire, with all of his master's hatred of cleri calism in all its forms. To him the Catholic Church appears as the sworn enemy of modern life and culture and particularly of the Republic of France. Personally he is what is called in France an ((austere Republican,P a man simple in his private life and rigid in his ad herence to the principles of the French Revo lution.