TAOISM. Taoism is one of the religions of China, or it might be better to say, Taoism has become one of the superstitions of China. For Taoism. as expounded by its reputed founder, was a philosophy rather than a religion, and when it came to be regarded as a religion, it had degenerated into a superstition. According to R.
K. Douglas, Taoism was originally a purely politico ethical system. It passed, in fact, through three stages. There was first the pure Taoism which was systematized about 600 B.C. by Lao-tsze, but had been in existence since about 1100 B.C. This flourished until about 200 B.C. There was secondly the Taoism as developed by the fol lowers of Lao-tsze. Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze. There has been, thirdly, the Taoism of modern times, which is so degenerate that it hardly deserves the name. The Yellow Emperor Hwang Ti (2700 B.C.) is supposed to have bequeathed to his people a number of valued and vener able precepts. And, according to E. H. Parker, " there can be little doubt that Lao-tsze in the sixth century B.C. simply gave a name (Tao) to a floating group of ethical principles already for many centuries spread far and wide over China, and already known as the Maxims of Hwang Ti." The difficulty is to know what exactly Lao-tsze meant by the term Tao. It appears in the title of the book in which he expounded his philosophy, the Tao-teh-King (q.v.). The word King means " classic " or " orthodox work " and was added subsequently when the work came to be regarded as classical. The subject of the book is therefore Tao-teh, an expression which was already In use in the " Book of Changes " and the " Book of Rites." E. H. Parker explains Tali as follows: " T8h Is an emanation from Tao, and signifies that rule of action which naturally follows from faith in Tao; not charity or forgiveness, as many have thought : its modern signification as a noun is " virtue," " efficacy," " power for good "; and, again, in verbal senses, " to be grateful for," " to like one for," " to take credit to one's self for " " (Chinese Religion, p. 71). From this one would suppose that the word corresponds to our -ism (or value). But Prof. Parker decides in favour of the word " Grace," which, in view of its theological associations, seems un fortunate. For Tao, he tells us, Lao-tsze himself could not find a suitable definition or circumlocution. Literally " the road," it is here simply a makeshift like the letter X as used in our expression X Rays. He decides in favour of " Providence," which again seems unfortunate. The primary meaning of the word To is " The Way." In this sense it was used frequently by Confucius (equiva lent to Greek nicthodos). J. Legge thinks that of the three English terms that suggest themselves, the Way, or the Reason, or the Word, the roost suitable is the Way in the sense of Method. He goes so far as to say : " If Methodism and Methodist had not been so well appro priated in English, I should have recommended their employment for Taoism and Taoist." But, as R. K. Douglas says, to Lao-tsze it seems to have meant more than the way. It is something impalpable. " You look at it, and cannot see it. You listen to it, and you cannot hear it. You try to touch it, and you cannot reach it. You use it, and cannot exhaust it. It is not to be expressed in words. It is still and void; It stands alone and changes not; it circulates everywhere and is not endangered. It is ever inactive, and yet leaves nothing undone. From it phenomena appear, through it they change, in it they disappear. Formless, it is the cause of form. Nameless, it is the origin of heaven and earth; with a name, it is the mother of all things. It is the ethical nature of the good man and the principles of his action." F. H. Balfour would translate the word by Nature or Principle—Nature, that is to say in the sense of Spinoza's natura naturans (see SPINOZISM), " the abstract Cause, the initial I'rinciple of life and order, the hypostatic quiddity which underlies all phenomena, and of which they are a manifestation only." Other meanings that have been suggested are : The Absolute in the sense of Schelling, and Substance in the sense of Spinoza. The Tao-teh-King, as rendered in English by Prof. E. H. Parker, the latest translator, does not create such a favourable impression as one would expect from quotations in other books; but his renderings no doubt follow the original more closely. Prof. Parker, in addi tion to his translation, gives a summary of the teaching of the Tao-teh-King. The following are quotations from the summary : " Providence [Tao], without origin itself, is the origin of everything; being without body and with out palpable existence; invisible, imperceptible, spon taneous, and impalpable. Heaven and Earth have their
beginnings in it; that is, in this eternal principle of pure being which determines the Universe. . . . It knows no distinction betweea spirit, mind, and matter, between what men call existence and non-existence; it contains all potentialities. . . . Providence [Tao] is incorruptible, perfect, eternal. . . . Providence is always restful, yet never idle; knows no time, limits, or wants; has no inclinations or preferences; and absorbs or takes unto itself those who regulate their conduct by faith in it. . . . A man who regulates his conduct by and has faith in Providence avoids display and self-asser tion; is humble, modest, calm, ready for all emergencies, and fearless of death. . . . He is always rich, because contented : his body is always safe, foe the mind has no apprehensions : he has no ill-will, and devotes his efforts to the amelioration of others. . . . He prefers reality to appearances, and strives for pure truth. . . . The natural powers should be economized, and all agitation, mental or physical, studiously avoided. . . . Do not trouble to have any fixed aim in life. The man who has attained to a mental oneness with Providence [Tao] is superior to the highest rulers. . . The King should avoid luxury, over-legislation, and over-taxation, which tend to the poverty, evasiveness, and misery of the people. . . . Too much cooking spoils the fish, as too much handling irritates the people. . . . The people should not be raised from their ignorance to the intel lectual level of their rulers. . . . Restrictions tend to hamper industry; consequently these should be as few and as simple as possible. At the same time, mechanical skill should not be too much encouraged, as it leads to excessive effort, emulation, and luxury." To bring one self into complete harmony with Tao (Substance, Truth, Principle)—this is the great ideal. As R. K. Douglas points out, Taoism is a kind of mysticism. Such was the Taoism of Lao-tsze. Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze thought to improve upon it, with the result that it began to degenerate. Lieh-tsze (fifth century B.C.) was fond of depicting ideal states of society in the form of dreams. He makes one of the Emperors dream, for instance, of a country " where the people were without rulers, for they were masters of themselves—were without passion, for they controlled their desires. They regarded life with out pleasure and death without dread, and therefore were overtaken by no untimely fates. They knew neither relations nor connections, and so were free from love and hate. . . . They walked in water without being drowned, they threw themselves into the fire without being burnt, and they might be cut and struck without receiving hurt. They mounted into the air and walked as on the ground. They slept in space as though they were on their beds, and the clouds and the mists inter fered with them not" (R. K. Douglas). This allegory, as Douglas says, foreshadows the way in which Taoism was to degenerate. Chang-tsze (four century B.C.) fol lowed his master more closely. According to Douglas, his main theme was the vanity of human effort. " If the world were but left to itself, people would wear that which they spun and eat that which grew. The moun tains would be without paths, and the waters without ships. All created things would rejoice in life. Wild animals would wander in troops, and trees and shrubs would flourish, among which birds and beasts might roam. Then would men enjoy a golden age. No knowledge would separate them from virtue, and no desires would taint their purity." Chwang-tsze came in time to believe that life was largely a matter of mere phantasmata or deceptive appearances. The later Taoists devoted them selves to alchemy and magic, putting their faith in charms and in the elixir of life. The old Taoism was further corrupted by the introduction of Buddhism into China in A.D. 65. Nevertheless, there are still to be found Taoists who cherish the old ideal—" men who are almost entirely uncontaminated by the follies and impos tures of modern popular Taoism, and who may be said to represent the true Apostolic Succession in the Taoist Church " (F. H. Balfour). See Joseph Edkins, Religion in China, 1878; James Legge, The Religions of China, 18S0; R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taoism; H. A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 1905; Frederic H. Bal four, " Taoism," in R.S.W.; E. H. Parker, Studies; J. J. M. De Groot; Rel. of the Chinese. 1910: Max B. Wein stein, and Anschanungen, 1910.