The military power and political influence of Russia were now almost paramount on the continent; and after the final dowufal of Napoleon, In 1815, she became the head of the 'Holy Alliance,' entered into by herself, Austria, Prussia, and France, for the sup pression of revolutionary principles. The remainder of the reign of Alexander was peaceful, and occupied chiefly in reforms of the internal government In one of these tours of inspection Alexander died at 'fsganrog, on the Don, aged 48 (Dec. 1825); and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas, the third eon of Paul, the second brother, Constan tine, having previously renounced the succession. This change iu the succession occasioned some military tumults, which were not quelled without bloodshed. In 1826 a dispute respecting boundaries led to a fresh war with Persia, which continued till 1828, when the progress of the Russians compelled Persia to give up Divan and the country as far as the Ars-xes, as the price of the peace of Turkmanchai. The Greek revolutionary war was now raging, and the treaty of London was signed (July 1827) by Russia, France, and England, for the settle ment of the question ; but the refusal Of the Porte to accede to the terms dictated to her produced the destruction of the Turkish fleet by the allied squadrons at Navarino ; and in 1828 a Russian army in 'faded Turkey, and though repulsed from before Shumla in the first campaign, succeeded in crossing the Balkan (1829), and occupied Adrianople, where a treaty was concluded, by which Russia acquired numerous frontier fortresses on the Black Sea, and the protectorate of 3loldavia and Wallachia. A general insurrection of the Poles (Nov. 1830), who were goaded by the tyranny of their viceroy the grand-duke Constantine, and by repeated infractions of their constitution, was crushed, after a campaign of frightful devastation and bloodshed, by the capture of Warsaw, Sept. 1831: many thousand Poles of all ranks were sent to Siberia ; the kingdom was incorporated with Russia, and has ever since been governed as a conquered province. The relations with the Porte assumed a new form in 1833, from the application of the sultan for aid to check the advance of the rebel pasha of Egypt : an auxiliary force was sent to Constantinople, and terms imposed on the pasha; but this service was repaid by the treaty of Unkiar-Skelesai, binding the Porte to have recourse to no other power for assistance, and to close the Dardanelles against all foreign ships of war. These proceedings excited in England a strong popular feeling of hostility towards Russia, which was further augmented by the seizure in 1836 of a British merchantman on the coast of Circassia, where a fierce guerilla warfare with the natives had been for some years carried on, the Russians claiming the country as ceded to them by the peace of Adrianople. The march against Herat (1888) of a Persian army, directed by Russian officers, viewed as preliminary to the invasion of the Anglo-Indian empire, brought the conflicting relations apparently to the verge of a rupture : but the apprehensions of the English cabinet were tranquillised by the repulse of the Persians, and the subsoquent conquest of Afghaniatan by an army from India; and the Rumen schemes of aggrandisement in this quarter received a further check from the failure of a formidable expedition directed (1840) against the predatory Uzbek state of Khiva.
Russia was now actively but secretly employed in consolidating her power, fortifying her ports, and strengthening her frontier fortresses. She became also tho protectress of the continental monarchies against the efforts for constitutional governments made by their subjects. In 1846 a alight attempt at revolution in favour of the independence of Poland was made at Cracow, which had been formed into a free republic in the treaties of 1815, under the sanction of all the allied powers. On February 22nd a Russian army took possession of Cracow, and in November a joint decree of Russia, Austria, and Prussia revoked and annulled the articles of the treaty, and Cracow was made over to Austria. Soon afterwards the Russian portion of Poland, to which a sort of nationality had been promised, was incor porated with the Russian empire, and formed into a Russian province. In 1847 Russia, in conjunction with Austria and Prussia, addressed a note to Switzerland, stating that they abstained from intervention ugly on condition of the Swiss adhering to the compact of 1815 ; that is, not altering or in any way liberalising their domestic institutions ; the vorort protested against any foreign interfercuce, proceeded iu their own course, and the only measures taken were by Austria in some vexation, restrictions on commerce and intercourse.
In 1848 the German revolutionary struggle was going on, and the insurrection against Austria commenced in Hungary. Unsuccessful in repressing this great national movement, Austria calicd in the - — • assistance of Russia, which was readily granted. Early in 1849 nu army was marched into Hungary ; on Juoe 23 the battle of Eperies was fought, on July 28 that of Miakolcz, and on July 31 that of Segeavar, and in all the Russians were the conquerors ; on August 31 the Hungarian army under Gorgey, 25,000 strong, aurreudercd them. eelvea to the Russians at Vilagoa, near Groawardein. In the meantime the Turks had been protesting against the violation of their territory by the marching of Russian troops through Turkish Transylvania. On the loss of the Hungarian cause many of the leaders had fled to Turkey, and their expulsion was demanded by Austria, seconded by Russia; • and on compliance being refused, the Russian minister sus pended all diplomatic intercourse with the Porte. Upon this the British fleet entered the Dardanelles and diplomatic relations were resumed on the refugees being located at Kutayeh.
In 1851 considerable progress was made in the construction of rail roads, and that between St. Petersburg and Moscow was opened for traffic. In 1852 the emperor Nicholas visited Vienna and Potsdam ; and entered into an agreement as to the succession to the Danish crown.
The possession of the Holy Places at Jerusalem, which were the temple, the sepulchre, and perhaps some others, had long been matters of contention between the monks of the Latin and Greek Churches in that city. A recent dispute had sprung up relative to the right of repairing the temple. The Turkish government had endeavoured to settle it by repairing it themselves, but this gave satisfaction to neither party. The defence of the Latins was uudertaken by France, who obtained a firman from the Porte which was thought objectionable by Russia, who of course protected the Greeks. On February 28, 1853, Prince Menzikoff arrived on a special mission at Constantinople ; ou March 16, in an interview with the Sultan, he announced the dissatis faction of the emperor with the measures taken as to the Holy Places, demanded an arrangement that should remove these causes of com plaint, and that a guarantee should be given for the future. In a second note (of April 19) such a guarantee was demanded as would best secure the integrity of the Greek faith throughout the Turkish empire. The Porte endeavoured to satisfy these demands by proposing to issue firmana securing the religious rights of the Greek Christians; but on May 5 Prince Menzikoff informed the ministers that the firmans would not satisfy him, and demanded an immediate decision. The Turkish ministry asked for time to consider of so important a matter; but Menzikoff on May 18 replied that he saw, from the desire of post ponement, that his efforts to secure a pacific decision were vain, and therefore considered hie mission terminated; that, as the Porte refused to give the required guarantee for the support of the orthodox Greek-Russian faith, nothing remained but for Russia to take the necessary guarantees by force. The next day the Turkish ministry replied to this note. They stated that their government had made no change; that with regard to the Holy Places, the dispute was not with it, but between France and Russia only; that however they would grant permission to Russia to build a church and an hospital in Jerusalem, and that a solemn decree should be issued confirming the privileges of the Greek clergy. These compliances were ineffectual. On May 21 Menzikoff rejected them, and quitted Constantinople. On the 26th the Porte addressed a memorandum to the ministers of Great Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia, detailing the state of the affairs. On the 31st a note from the Emperor of Russia granted a delay of eight days to the Porte for re-consideration of his demands, but approved of the conduct of his ambassador, as he considered the conduct of the Porte to be a personal offence. The reply to this was, that the demands were wholly inconsistent with the independence of the state, and would not be complied with. On the 26th the Russian manifesto against Turkey was issued, and on July 2 Russian troops entered Wallachia.