In the meantime the English and French ambassadors at Constan tinople had protested and remonstrated against the claims of Russia; the resolution of England having been much strengthened by an invidious proposition made by the emperor Nicholas to the ambas sador at St. Petersburg for apportioning Turkey—he taking Constan tinople provisionally only, and England taking Egypt. On the appear ance of a commencement of hostilities, the British fleet was summoned to the Dardauelles, and that of the French quickly followed.
In September 1853 war was formally declared by the Porte against Russia, and on the 1st of October an appeal for material support was made by Turkey to France and England. On the 27th of October the Turks crossed the Danube opposite Widdin, and with greater force on the 3rd of November. Whenever the • Russians attacked them, the Turks maintained their position with obstinate courage.
On the 30th of November the Turkish fleet was destroyed in tho harbour of Sinope by the Russian fleet from Sebastopol. The narrative of that destruction was so full of horrible circumstances, presenting the character of rather a cruel massacre than an equal battle, that the indignation of England was fairly roused. The combined fleets of Great Britain and Franco entered the Black Sea on the 3rd of December, on the demand of the Porte to the ambassadors. The Russian fleet. retired to tho shelter of Sebastopol, from which it never again stirred.
We cannot go into the details of the war with the minuteness of a history : it will be sufficient to mention the more striking events. On the 22ud of April tho allied fleets bombarded Odessa; the Russians laid siege to Silietria, were moat signally repulsed, and in June they re treated across the Danube ; the Aland islands in the Baltic were taken in August, all the Russian ports in that sea blockaded, and Cron stadt, the port of St. Petersburg, watched and threatened. On the 14th, 15th, and 16th of September the allied armies landed in the Crimea near Eupatoria. On the 20th was fought the battle of the Alma, in which the passage of the river was forced against great advan tages of position and numerical superiority, and the Russians were forced to retreat ; Sebastopol was then passed, and the siege begun from the southern side ; repeated conflicts have taken place, the most brilliant was that called the battle of Inkermann on November 5, 1S54, which ended in the repulse of the Russians.
Gotcrnact1, se.—The emperor is an absolute monarch. Several classes of the inhabitants enjoy certain privileges and immunities, under no other guarantee however than the pleasure of the monarch, who may abolish them just as he granted them. No one has of right any rank unless such as he obtains by filling a civil or military office. The inhabitants of Russia are divided into the following classes :--the clergy, the nobility, the merchants and burghers, and peasants.
The clergy is composed of the monastic or regular clergy, and the secular clergy. All the higher preferments of the church are held exclusively by the first; the secular clergy (the members of which must be married) have no higher preferment than the superintendence of a certain number of parishes. The children of the clergy generally
follow the vocation of their parents; some of them enter the civil service.
The nobility is the privileged else. They may enter the service of foreign powers not at war with Russia. A noble cannot be judged except by a judge belonging to his condition, and sentence passed against him cannot be purled into execution without having been previously examined by the senate and confirmed by the emperor himself. A noble is exempt from corporal punishment. The nobility may establish any kind of manufacture and engage in commerce, but in the latter case they mast inscribe themselves in one of the merchants' guild!, and pay the taxes attached to it. All the minerals found on their estates are their property, and they are the almost exclusive landholders of the country. All Russian subjects, except those em ployed on diplomatic service, are prohibited from educating their children from ten to eighteen year. of age abroad. All children educated in contravention to the ukase are incapable of holding office in Ruasia.
The nobles have meetings for tho election of certain magistrates, and they may send deputations to the emperor after permission obtained. They may also deliberate at theee meetings on several local affairs. Those nobles only who enjoy a grade in the military or civil service are capable of voting. There are two claws of nobles, here ditary and personal To the first class belong all nobles who have inherited their rank or risen in service to the eighth grade, that of major in the army, ceptain.lientenant in the navy, or assessor of a college. The personal nobler, are those who have acquired by their services a grade inferior to the eighth. These latter enjoy the privi leges of the order without transmitting them to their children, and they cannot be elected to certain offices. The titled nobility, or princes, counts, and barons, have no privileges beyond those of the other nobles. The titles are derived from Russian and foreign grants. The princes are chiefly of the ancient petty prince. of Rosa* and some of the Lithuanian dynasty; many are of Tartar, some of Georgian or Imeritian descent The second order of the inhabitants of Russia is composed of the citizens or townsmen, who are subdivided into many classes. Hono rary citizens, who are exempt from the capitation-tax, military con acnption, and corporal punishment, and have the right of being elected to municipal offices, consist of free non-nobles who have obtained academical honours, distinguished artists, and heads of manufacturing establishment.. Academical honours entitle the individual who has obtained them to receive a corresponding grade on entering the civil service. The children of the personal nobles are hereditary honorary citizens. The privileges of that order are forfeited either in conse quence of a criminal sentence, or by engaging in some mean trade, and entering into domestic service.