Ferdinando Galiani also, of Naples, ranks among the most distin tinguisbed writers on political economy in the last century. While at Paris, he wrote in French a book on the corn-trade, Dialogues sur he Commerce des B163; in which he took a middle course between those who advocated an unrestricted trade in corn, and those who wished it to be subject to permanent restrictions. Galiaui contends that no uni versal system can be established on that important subject, and that the laws concerning the trade in corn must vary according to the situation of individual stabes, the nature and cultivation of their re spective soils, and also their political institutions and relations to other countries. Galiani also wrote, in Italian, a work on money, Della Moneta,' published in 1750, which is reckoned one of the best on this subject. Taking an enlarged view, he investigated the nature of the value of things, which he said was the result of various circumstances, namely, their scarcity, utility, the quantity and quality of the labour required for their production, and also the time. He extends his investigations to the value of men's abilities, which are to be esti mated not only according to their rarity, but also according to the time required for their coming to maturity, and the difficulties en countered before they can attain a station favourable to their develop. ment. This is a position analogous to that afterwards stated by Adam Smith (b. i., eh. 10), " that the wages of labour vary with the easiness and cheapness or the difficulty and expense of learning a business." It requires more time and expense to form a physician, or a statesman, or a divine, than a common labourer, and therefore the latter has less value than the former. Galiani combats the received opinion of his time, that high prices were a sign of distress. He also contended that the precious metals were to be considered as merchandise. Galiani may be considered as a reformer of the old mercantile system. [GaLtasn, in Moo. Drv.] Gian Francesco Pagnini, born at Volterra in 1715, published in 1751 a dissertation Sopm it giusto Pregio dells Cosa; or the just value of things, and in 1764 a History of the Commerce of Florence,' with a digression on the value of gold and silver, and its proportion to the prices of other things in the 14th and 15th centuries, compared with those in the 18th century. Both works contain sonnd opinions and interesting facts. l'ompeo Neri of Florence wrote, in 17u61,' Gamma zioni copra it Prezzo legal° dello 31onete: a work of considerable merit.
Glum Rinaldo Carli, born at Capo d'Istria in 1720, ranks with Oaliani as one of the most distinguished Italian political economiste. lie wrote an elaborate work on coin and currency, and on the mints of Italy : Dello Moneta a della latituzione deli %ceche d'italia; 3 vols. 4to., 1754-60, in which he completely exhausted the also wroth Ragionamento sopm i Bilanci Economici dello Isiazioni; in which he combated the fallacy prevalent in his time about the balance of trade. lie also dimwitted the subject of the corn-trade in a letter addressed to Pompon Neri, In 1771, Sul Liboro Cotnmercio doi Omni, In which he agreed with Galiani in denying the wisdom of a general prin ciple of unrestricted freedom of trade in corn, which he thought ought to be modified according to local circumstances, because ho considered the supply of corn as a subject deeply connected with administrative policy, and not a mere commercial question. Carli had a powerful mind, uninfluenced by ?popular opinions or prevalent systems. Other particulars concerning this distinguished writer are given under Clem, in BIOG. Div.
Antonio Genovesi, born in 1712, at Caatiglione near Salerno, became professor of the new chair " of commerce and mechanics," founded at Naples in 1755, by Bartolommeo Intimi, a wealthy Florentine merchant of that city. Genovesi published his lectures under the title of Lezioni di Economia Civile,' in 1768. Genova,' took a middle course between the mercantile system and that of the " Economistes." lie reckoned three sources of wealth, agriculture, arts, and commerce. He extols agriculture as an ample and perennial spring of public wealth, but lie also appreciates commerce and manufactures as the causes of an increase, of production. With regard to commerce, ho adopts the restrictive system of the mercantile school as to foreign goods, whilst he agrees with the " Economistes " as to the freedom of trade in corn, and of internal trade in general, as well as with respect to the interest of money. Ile inculcates the principle that labour con stitutes the capital of nations as well as of families. But ho did not fall into the vulgar error of considering whole classes of society as unproductive because they are not employed in manual labour, such as men of science, scholars, lawyers, soldiers, magistrates, and others. Gcnovesi wrote also other treatises on political economy, which he succeeded in rendering popular in his own country.
The other Italian political economists of the 18th century are : 1. Francesco Algarotti of Venice, born in 1712, who wrote SaiTio Kul Commereio: in which he extols commerce as the source of wealth and power, and he quotes the example of England. He also wrote a few short suggestions on the advantages which might be derived from Africa, in a commercial point of view, by the nations of Europe : Sulla Preferenza dell' Africa in confronto dell' Asia c dell' America, rapporto all' Industrie o dal Commercie dcgli Europei.' 2. Antonio Zenon of Udine in the Venetian territory, bone in 1696, a merchant by profes ion, wrote letters on agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, which he encouraged also by his exertions. He was a man of a liberal mind and a true philanthropist. 3. Cesare Beocaria of Milan wrote lectures on political economy, in which ho expounded, among other things, the advantages of the division of labour, and ho investigated the relations of wages and labour, and the nature of productive capitals. With regard to the corn-trade, he agreed with Carli and Galiani in not ad vising any general system. He considered large masses of property as more advantageous to a country than small subdivisions. In general, Beecaria may be considered as belonging to the school of the " Econo rnistes." [Beccania, CESARE BONESANA, in Thou. Dtv.] 4. PietroVorri, born at Milan in 1727, the intimate friend of Beccaria, although he differed from him on several points of political economy, wrote ' 31e morie sun' Economia Pubblica dello State di Milano,' in which lie shows the decline of that country during the two centuries of Spanish dominion, and ascribes it to the ignorance of its rulers and the absurdity of the laws. He wrote also 'Itifiessioni sulle Leggi Vincolanti, prin cipahnente sun Commercio doi Omni,' in which he advocated the prin ciple of absolute liberty. Lastly, ho wrote Meditazioni sull' Economia Politica,' which were published in 1771, and have been translated into several languages. It is an elementary but useful book. 5. Ferdi nando Paoletti, born in 1717, near Florence, wrote, in 1769, Pensieri sops l'Agricoltum; and, in 1772, Veri 3lezzi di rendcre fad to So cieta: in which he advocated freedom of trade. 6. Gian Battiata Vasco, born at llondovi in Piedmont, in 1733, wrote Saggio Politico sulfa Moneta; 1772, in which he treats of various questions of political economy. He afterwards wrote, in French, 316moire our les Causes
de la 31endicit6 et sur les Moyeus de is supprimer; which ho sent to the Academy of Valence in Dauphin6, in 1788. His other works were Sulla Felieita Publics considerate nei Coltivatori di Terre proprio ; ' and L'Usum libera.' 7. Giaminaria Ortes, born at Venice in 1713, wroth a work entitled Dell' Economia Nazionale,' libri sei, 1774, which however remained unknown except to a few friends of the author, until Ciestodi inserted it in his great collection of the Italian economists. His views were original, and he belonged to none of the schools already established. Ho lays it down as a fundamental principle that the capital of a nation is always in proportion to the population, and that the only difference is in its distribution. If a portion of the population becomes richer, it can only be by impoverishing the rest. As a con sequence of this principle, ho asserts that all endeavours to increase industry with a view to increase the national wealth are futile. But lie supports also the principle of freedom of trade between nations, because, lie says, every nation has its own capital, which cannot be diminished nor increased by exchange. Ortes wrote also Itifleasioni sulk PopoLazione per rapporto all' Economia Nazionale,' 1790, in which he stated several positions which have been since developed by Malthus, such as that population increases in proportion to the increase of production ; that population does not always increase with the in crease of marriages, &c. 8. Filippo Briganti, a native of Naples, pub lished, in 1780, Esame Economic° del Sistemna Civile,' in which lie refutes the theories of Mably, Rousseau, and Linguct, who asserted that the state of society, and civilisation, commerce, and wealth, wore the origin of all the evils with which man is afflicted. P. Gaetano Filangieri, born at Naples in 1752, is known by his work on legislation, the second volume of which treats of political economy. lie belonged to the school of the French economists, but lie was not a servile follower of that school. He was a supporter of the freedom of trade; he had no prejudices against luxury, but be advocated direct taxation, or the tax on land, and he maintained that large cities were injurious to the prosperity of a country. [Frtaxoteni, in BIOG. Dry.] 10. The Marquis Caraccioli, while he was viceroy of Sicily, wrote Rfflessioni sull' Economia e l'Estrazione dei Frumenti della Sicilia fatte ad occa sione della Carestia del 1784 ed 1785: The author, being struck with the fact that Sicily, once the granary of Rome, should be so frequently afflicted with scarcity and famine, sought to investigate the causes of this great change. He recommended freedom of internal trade, but with regard to the exportation of corn, he thought it might be sus pended at times by an act of government from prudential motives. 11. Saverio Scrofani, on the contrary, in a 3Iemoria sulla Liberth del Commercio dei Grani della Sicilia,' published in 1795, advocated an entire and permanent freedom in the corn-trade, quoting the example of Tuscany, where tbat system had been in practice since 1767, and had been attended with the beat results. 12. Maurizio Solera, a native of Piedmont, wrote in French, Essai sur les Valeurs,' which he ple sented in 1796 to King Victor. He proposed an agricultural bank in order to make up for the scarcity of bullion. But his project was not carried into effect. 13. Lodovico Ricci, a native of Modena, was named, by the Duke Ercole III., member of a commission appointed to inquire into the charitable institutions of the town of Modena. Ricci was the reporter of the commission, and his report was published and dedicated to the duke : Riforma degl' Instituti Pii della Citth di 31odena; 17S7. He was one of the first in Italy (Ortes and Genovesi had already expressed opinions similar to his) who censured indiscrimi nate charity as encouraging idleness and improvidence, and thus creating pauperism. Italy abounded at that time, more perhaps than any country in Europe, with charitable institutions. In Modena, which had in the time of lticci a population of 40,000 inhabitants, there were 7000 destitute persons. Ricci demonstrated from historical facts that pauperism increases in proportion to the facility of obtaining relief. He censured legacies for portioning poor girls, and other pre miums on marriage, and said that the increase of population should only be the result of labour and frugality, by which the means of subsistence are increased. He proposed that charitable institutions should be supported by private charity, and not by the government, which should not do moro than establish workhouses to give employ ment to paupers and vagrants, instruct the poor classes, and endeavour to raise their moral condition. The advice of Ricci was acted upon by the government of Modena. 14. Giuseppe Palmieri, born in 1721, in the province of Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples, filled several offices iu the administration of his country, and wrote observations on the tarif and on national wealth : Osservazioni sidle Tariffs con appli cazione al Regno di Napoli,' and`Sully Ricchezza Nazionalc.' In speaking of commerce, he says that a full and universal liberty would be the best system, but as this liberty is not admitted by any nation, the nation that should alone put it in practice might find it turn to its disadvantage, and its condition would be that of a lamb among wolves. He therefore advises not the prohibitive but the restrictive system, or in other words, a system of custom-house duties on the principle of reciprocity. 15. Count 3lengotti of Feltra, in the Venetian state, wrote, in 1791, a book against the exclusive mercantile system, which he styled Colbertismo,' from the name of Colbert, the great patroniser of that system. This work was written in reply to a query proposed by the Economical Society of Florence, which was put in the following words : " Whether in a state which, by its locality and the nature of its soil, is susceptible of increase of produce and population, it be most advisable to favour manufactures by certain restrictions on the exportation of the raw materials, or to leave it an entire freedom I " Mengotti recommended perfect freedom of trade, and his book obtained the prize. It is one of the best written works of the Italian political economists. Mengotti, Beccaria, and Galiani are three writers who, by their style, have succeeded in enlivening an abstruse subject and making their dissertations entertaining as well as instructive. Men., gotti wrote also a memoir, ' Sul Commercio dei Romani,' which ob tained, in 1787, the prize from the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres of Paris. Mengotti maintained, that until the first I'unic war the Romans had no commerce in an extended sense; that from the first I'unic war to the battle of Actium their commerce consisted in carrying home the spoils of other nations ; that from Augustus to Constantine their trade was mainly passive and ruinous; they pro duced nothing, and bought foreign luxuries and even the necessaries of life with the money they extorted from the subject provinces, and at last they fell gradually again into poverty and barbarism.