In the earliest works on Indian agronomy now extant, several different systems are apparent, and these systems have been treated of in fire works, entitled ' Sidellihntas; which apparently contain the same theories which were afterwards successively extended and improved. Varehamihim, at the beginning of tho Ctil century A.D., compared them with each other, and other astronomers worked then up again under different titles, each with the view of introducing into them his own theory. The most important of all astronomers that yanseedel Vaniharnildra is Aryabhatta, who was the first to free himself completely front all mythological notions ; he was acquainted with the motion of the earth about its axis, and estimated more accurately than Ptolemy the precession of the equinoxes. His work, Arytishissata; an exhibition of his system in SOO strophes, has not yet been recovered, but his abridgment of it, ' Dasagitak.a; and another work, Aryals battlya; which in 4 chapters and 123 strophes contains Ilia system of mathematics, are still extant. According to Colebrooke's reckoning, the latest period at which lie can be fixed is 478 A.D., and ho may have lived two or three centuries earlier ; and 1Vhish (' Trans. Asiat, Soc.', 2.509). fixes the year of his birth about 502 A.D. By the researches of Weber (' dud. Stud.', ii. 236 ff.; led. p. 221 ff.) and Lassen (' Ind. Alt.', ii. 1114-46) the question whether the Indian astronomy was entirely native, or whether it was constructed with the aid of that of the Greeks, has been finally settled in favour of Greek influence.
Aryabhatta, who most probably flourished as early as the beginning of the 4th century A.D., availed himself largely of the progress which the Greeks (especially Ilipparchue) had made in astronomy ; and ho not only improved upon their new theories and inventions, but added also the results of Ilia own independent investigations. In algebra he made even greater progress than the Greeks. Astronomy has not been improved in India since his time ; on the contrary, those who have come after hint have not relinquished the false views consecrated by religion, but have endeavoured to defend them against him. This -was chiefly done by Bralimagupta, the author of ths' Brahmasiddhanta; in the 6th century a.u., who is the classical astronomer of the modems, and whose track was followed by Blieskara in the 12th century, in his work Siddhantasinenani.' Since tote of the other Siddhantas, the Silryaeiddlithsta, has lately been edited in Calcutta (1859), and an excellent translation of the same has appeared iii the sixth volume of The Journal of the American Oriental Society,' (1860) p. 141.498, we have the means; to make ourselves acquainted with all .ho peculiar features of Hindu astronomy. (See several discussions Colebrooke in the. second volume of his Essays,' and an article by I.. E. Hall, on the ' Arya-Siddhanta ' in the Journ. Am. Or. Soc.', I. I.
556-C t.
Mcdirine.—There are many Indian works on medicine, and the systems are various. Many parts of the medical science of India are valuable even to us, as for instance the Materia Medica, in which they were much favoured by nature. The Indian physicians were highly esteemed by the Greeks. In surgery especially they have made con siderable progress, and have even discovered and performed difficult operations, 144 for instance the restoring of noses. The moat cele brated medical work, Susruta,' has been printed (Calcutta, 1835, 2 vole. 8vo) ; and Ainsley Materia Indica,' London, 1826 and 1831), and more recently Hoyle, (' On the Antiquity of Hindu Medicine,' London, 1837), and II ise e Commentary on the Hindu System of Medicine,' Cale. 1845), have done much to make known the Indian 'systems of medicine.
Natural Ilistory.—The observation of external nature still remains in a very low state among the natives of India, and they seem never to have made any progress even towards the commencement of a scientific system of natural history ; at least no works of this kind are known.
Study of Sanskrit—The Sanskrit language was for many years con sidereal unattainable, but towanls the close of the last century this study received a powerful impulse, partly from the necessities of the English government in India, and partly from a desire of knowledge among the learned of Europe. The study of the language having been once commenced. its progress was extremely rapid, the acquisition of It being much facilitated by the previous labours of native gram marians; and by the printing of a great number of their most Important works, a large part of the literature became generally accessible, an advantage which most of the other oriental languages have not enjoyed. In India this progress has been connected with the names of Wilkins. Jones, Colcbrooke, Wilson, Mill, Prinsep, Hoer, Hall, It. Matra, Radhaktint Deb. But Europe has not remained behind ; and the rich collections of manuscripts in the possession of the East India Company in London, of the Bodleian at Oxford, of the Royal Library at Berlin, and of the Imperial Library of Paris, have been abundant sources, and perhaps more than sufficient to compen sate for the peculiar advantages enjoyed by India. In England, the study of Sanskrit was in the first place most indebted to Haughton and Rosen [Hoses, in thou. Div.]; it now counts among its Sanskrit scholars such men as M. Muller, Goldstficker, Ballantyne, M. Williams, and Aufrecht. In France, it was chiefly introduced through Hamilton in 1804, and cultivated by Ch6zy and Burnout. In Germany however Sanskrit has experienced the most cordial reception, though at first, owing to the want of manuscripts, the study of it was prosecuted under the greatest disadvantages. In that country, the knowledge of Sanskrit was chiefly diffused by A. \V. von Schlegel and Bopp, both of whom learnt it about the same time in I'aris. At present there is hardly a university or college that has not its chair for Sanskrit ; and of the success with which it has been studied, the works of Lassen, Roth, Weber, Stealer, Brockhaua, Benfey, Kuhn, and Spiegel, give abundant proof. Also in other continental countries Sanskrit scholars of eminence, such as Westergaard in Denmark, Boehtlingk and Schiefner in Russia, Regnier in France, Neve in Belgium, and Oorresio in Italy, have done much to promote and popularise the study of ancient Indian literature.
For the practical study of Sanskrit we would recommend the following books : a, Dictionaries : 2nd ed., Cale. 1832; 3rd ed. by stlicker (in the course of publication)) ; Sanskrit-Wiirterbuch; by 0. Boehtlingk and R. Roth, St. Petersburg, 1855 ff. (in the course of publication); Engl. and Sanger. Diet.', by M. bond. 1851.
b, Grammars : Wilson, 2nd ed., London, 1847 ; Williams, 2nd ed., London, 1857; Bopp, Grammatica critica lingual Sanseritac; Berlin, 1829-32, and his' Kritische Grammatik der Sanskrita-Sprache,' Merlin, 1815 ; Boller, Ausfiihrliche Sanskrit-Grammatik,' Wien, 1847 ; Benfcy, ' Vollstiindige Gramm. der Sanskrit-sprache; Leipzig, 1852, and his Rurze Sanskrit-Grammatik; Leipzig, 1855; Desgranges, maire Sanscrite-Francaise; 2 vols., Paris, 1845; Oppert, Gramm. Sanserite; Paris,1859 ; Hotta, Gramm. abr6g3e de la langue Sanscrite; Paris, 1860; Flechia, Grammatica &Insults,' Torino, 1856.
c, Readers: Johnson, ' Selections from the Mahabharata; London, 1842 ; Sanskrit-Chrestomathie,' by 0. Bohtlingk, St. Petersburg, 1815; Authologia Sanserita,' eel. Lassen, Bonn, 1838 ; Cluesto matt& aus Sanekritwerken; by Th. Benfev, Leipzig, 1853.
d, Mirka on comparative Grammar: Bopp, Vergleichende Gram matik des Sanskrit, etc.', 2nd edit., Berlin, 1856-61, 3 vols. ; translated into English, London, 1854, ff., 3 vols.; Bopp, Olossarium Sanscr.; Berlin, 1847 ; Kuhn, ' Zeitschrift ffir vergleicheede Sprachforschung,' Berlin, 1852 ff., 10 vols.; Kuhn and Schleicher, Beitriige zur vergl. Spmchforselmng; Berlin, 1858-61, 3 vols.; many articles in the ' Transactions of the Philological Society.'