Neither must too much importance be attached to the debaucheries of the later Romans. Their vices have been proclaimed to the world, but their domestic virtues, and especially their civic merits, have had no historian. The events of later times, at least, can always be brought before the pow erful tribunal of civilization, but not so the gross selfishness which the privileged classes of ancient Rome opposed to the just demands of the plebeians, the acquirement and defence of whose rights occupied a con siderable space in the history of the state until its political greatness fell to the ground only to be resolved into a more humane system of morality.
But that which distinguishes Roman culture from all preceding phases is to be found in the fact that it awakened the consciousness of the rights of humanity, though almost exclusively in opposition to its wrongs; and its merit in this respect is the more noticeable that this sense was com municated, in a greater or less degree, to the subjects of Rome. The Republic had to allege a pretext for its acts of oppression—a thing before unknown in history; the Empire needed, at the worst, only a palliation. It was at least the beginning of accountability. The development of mankind, previously artless, became reflective; previously natural or for tuitous, it became designed and systematic.' to Roman writers, a simple wrap constituted the original dress of the people. They confounded it, for obvious reasons, with a similar garment, the toga, worn in their own times; but the two were widely different, for the former was intended only as a protection against inclement weather, and was worn according to each one's pleas ure, fancy, or need, while the later toga must be regarded as the national costume par excellence.
But we must first say a word about the tunic (p1. 29, fig. 3), which formed the simple house-dress of every Roman, the attire of the working classes, and the under-garment of the costumes of the better classes. It was a gown-like garment which fitted either loosely or tightly, and was closed all around, though supplied with openings for putting it on. The arms were covered with flowing drapery or with real sleeves, and it was girded about the hips, so that when drawn up it reached about to the knee.
The toga (p1. 29, fig. 4) consisted of an oval piece of cloth about three times as long and twice as wide as the wearer. It was folded lengthwise, and with the long straight edge so obtained, and with the smaller segment on the outside, it was thrown over the left shoulder, so as to cover entirely the left side of the body, one end hanging down in front and over the left arm to the feet; the long end at the back was then drawn forward under the right arm across the body, and again over the shoulder or arm of the left side, and hung some distance down the back. To cover the right shoulder the upper part of the double piece hanging behind was drawn forward over that shoulder, while the end hanging at the left side in front was drawn across to meet it, and thus a fold or pocket was formed in front of the breast. We learn from ancient pictures that the toga was also worn
in other ways, but always in an artistic manner. In fact, so much atten tion was paid to its artistic drapery that we read of a lawsuit having been caused by a disarrangement of it.
These two garments, the tunic and the toga, together with the sandals or shoes which all wore, constituted the entire costume. When the Romans grew more sensitive to the seasons they wore several under-garments, in which case the lower tunic, or subucula, was narrower and was alone girded, while the upper one, the supArrus, constituted a kind of upper shirt. The toga was considered as a mark of citizenship, and was the true robe of honor. It was not intended nor adapted for all purposes, for no work could be performed in it, nor when worn was even a quick movement of the body possible. Accordingly, the need of a freer upper garment was felt, one which should require less consideration; and this want led to the invention of the mantle, which covered the left arm and was fastened on the right shoulder. Later custom adopted also other garments of foreign origin. The legs and the head were generally bare. But in later and more effeminate times the civilians adopted the short, close-fitting cover ings of the upper leg worn by the soldiers. Fishermen, hunters, boatmen, and others whose duties required them to be much in the open air used caps of felt, leather, or plaited straw. The Greek bat was also used as a protection against the sun.
Custom and fashion were not the only arbiters of the Roman costume. It was in full accord with the strict organization of the state to extend its supervision over the dress. The true national costume, the white toga, could be worn only by free citizens, and these were forbidden to put on any other garment even when absent from the city. The clients or half citizens wore the tunic and an especial wrap. After the patricians of Old Rome had been overthrown by the plebeians, and the aristocracy of blood had given place to that of office, no less degree of splendor of costume was sought by the ruling classes. A ring of gold supplanted the iron one; the amulet which all carried was kept in a golden case; and the tunic was decorated with a broad purple stripe (clams) from the neck to the lower hem (tunics laticlavia). The knights wore, besides the gold ring and two narrow purple stripes on the tunic (tunica Augusticlaria), a purple binding on the trabea; that is, the chlamys-shaped mantle of horsemen. Under the emperors differences of rank ceased to be perceptible from the dress. The dress of the Roman peasant, as is partly the case to-day (pl. 29, fig. 9), consisted of skins. Courtesans were prohibited by law from wear ing the costume of respectable women.