The increase of population in the cities necessitated the addition of one or more stories to the houses. In Rome it became necessary finally to prohibit the excessive piling up of such additions. The upper stories were lighted by small windows (pl. 31, fig. 3); the ground-floor, which always remained the chief place of resort, retained its old arrangement. The family life of the Romans was entirely withdrawn from public gaze.
The material of which the houses were built depended, of course, on the nature of the country. It was generally brick, with stone for the foundations. In the beginning shingles were used for the roof, and later on excellent tiles (pl. 32, fig. 48), of which so many specimens have come down to us. The manner of heating which they employed during several centuries in their northern possessions was unexcelled. Heated air was conducted beneath the hollow floors and by means of pipes concealed within the walls to the upper stories. The rooms were usually smaller than they are in our better houses, and but poorly lighted; the walls were frequently dark in color, or even black, and painted with domestic scenes, mythological representations, comic figures, or erotic groups, according to their different purposes.
House-firrnishhig.—In furniture and household utensils it will readily be believed that the Romans, who were heirs to all the culture of pre ceding generations, would not remain inferior to any people. Excava tions show us the manifold variety of domestic articles. A selection seen on Plate 32 exhibits the characteristics of sonic of them. The prevailing style is Creek, which, indeed, could not be considered foreign in South ern Italy with its Greek colonies, and which had been early domiciled in Rome itself. There remains no room for doubt that with the Romans, too, beauty was the end sought in all articles of luxury, and it must be admit ted that in this respect the highest point was attained, while it is none the less true that as regards utility they had scarcely progressed beyond the childhood of practical art. Our most magnificent chandeliers are inferior to the candelabrum (fig. 4o) with its fine proportions, and yet the latter only supported a dint oil lamp to illuminate the room.
The farther we go back into ancient times, the more important, and also the more difficult, does it become to determine which of the numerous remains were of domestic origin and which were the product of foreign industry. In the Etruscan tombs we find Greek vases and vessels made of ostrich egg-shells, decorated, both of which were certainly of foreign origin. It is also very probable that the small cups and flasks (p1. 33,
figs. 6, 8) of glass and bluish-green enamel which have been found with the clay and metal articles of home manufacture were productions of the East. The fantastically shaped vessels (fig. 7) of unburnt black clay are undoubtedly of native Etruscan make. They were succeeded by red ones burnt in imitation of Greek wares.
Whatever is found in strictly Roman territory may be set down (as far as our present subject is concerned) as either Etruscan or Greek, for the Romans learned from both peoples successively, and they did not repress the enterprise of the nations whom they conquered, but on the contrary developed it. The Etruscans, as soon as they found themselves excelled by their Eastern competitors, ceased to make the finer wares. They con tinued, however, to manufacture those for common use, and thus we find in the Roman colonies, in late times, Etruscan vessels and other utensils of bronze by the side of Greek articles of luxury. All these latter may safely be considered works of the Greeks, who supplied without competi tion all the chief cities of the empire.
While the Etruscans confined themselves to the use of bronze, and in fact became so skilful therein as to be able to construct entire vehicles of this material (fig. 3), the Greeks turned their attention to the precious metals. What at this period they were still able to accomplish in the use of the latter is clearly demonstrated by the late finds of silver ware at Hildesheim. We present a large bowl in Figure 19 (p1. 32) from this col lection. The Republic, in order to check the growth of luxury, made laws regulating the quantity of silver plate which the citizens might pos sess; but even before its overthrow the taste for such articles had extended beyond all bounds, so that enormous prices were paid for choice specimens of Greek workmanship. Even as early as the reign of Augustus wealthy people furnished their kitchens with silver ware and their tables with gold. Under Tiberius it again became necessary to regulate by law the use of the latter precious metal. Vessels were even carved out of precious stones, such as agate, onyx, etc. Fabrications of glass, for which art Alexandria was especially distinguished, were not only highly prized in their own time, but have never been equalled since. The Romans also used alabas ter, marble, and similar materials for their vases and articles of luxury. We have only to mention these articles in this History of Culture; their closer study belongs to the domain of antiquarian art.