ABBOT (through Lat. obbas, Gk. 613,36c, abbess, from Syriac ubba, father). A name orig inally given as a term of respect to any monk. especially to one noted for piety, but afterward ordinarily applied to the superior of a monastery or abbey. The first abbots were laymen, as the monks were, but in the Eastern Church priestly abbots appear iu the fifth eenthry, and in the Wektern Church in the seventh, and such ordained abbots are now the rule. After the second Nicene Council (787), abbots were empow ered to consecrate monks for the lower sacred orders: but they remained in subordination tinder their diocesan bishops until the eleventh century. They exercised absolute authority over their monasteries. As abbeys became wealthy, abbots increased in power and influence; many received episcopal titles; and all were ranked as prelates of the Church next to the bishops, and had the right of voting in Church councils. Even abbesses contended for the same honors and privileges, but without success. In the eighth and ninth centuries, abbeys began to come into the hands of laymen, as rewards for military service. In the tenth century many of the chief abbeys in Christendom were under lay-abbots (abbates milites, or abba-comites), while subor dinate deans or priors had the ?-piritual over sight. The members of the royal household received grants of abbeys as their maintenance, and the king kept the richest for himself. Thus, Hugo Capet of France was lay-abbot of St. Denis, near Paris. Sometimes convents of nuns were granted to men, and monasteries to women of rank. These abuses were, in great measure, reformed during the tenth century. After the reformation of the order of Benedictines, monas teries arose that were dependent upon the mother-monastery of Clugny and without abbots, being presided over by priors or pro-abbates. Of the orders founded after the eleventh century, only some named the superiors of their convents abbots; most used the titles of prior, major, guardian, rector. Abbesses have almost always
remained under the jurisdiction of their diocesan bishop; but the abbots of independent or liber ated abbeys acknowledged no lord but the Pope. In the Middle Ages, the so-called abbates omitrati frequently enjoyed episcopal titles, but only a few had dioceses. Before the period of seculari zation in Germany, several of the abbots in that country had princely titles and powers. In England there were a considerable number of mitred abbots who sat and voted in the House of The election of an abbot belongs, as a rule, to the chapter or assembly of the monks, and is afterward confirmed by the Pope or by the bishop, according as the monastery is inde pendent or under episcopal jurisdiction. At the time he must be at least twenty-five years of age. From early times, the Pope in Italy has claimed the right of conferring abbacies, and the Concordat of Bologna (August 18, 1516) between Francis I. and Pope Leo X. gave that right to the king of France. Non-monastic clergy who possessed monasteries were styled secular abbots; while their vicars, who discharged the duties, as well as all abbots who belonged to the monas tic order, were styled regular abbots. In France, the abuse of appointing secular abbots was car ried to a great extent previous to the time of the revolution of 1789 (see ABBE) ; indeed, often mon asteries themselves chose some powerful person as their secular abbot, with a view of "commend ing" or committing their abbey to his protection, and such lay-abbots were called abbes commenda taires. Iu countries which joined in the Refor mation of the sixteenth century the possessions of abbeys were mostly confiscated by the crown; but in Hanover. Brunswick, and Wurttemberg several monasteries and convents were retained as educational establishments. In the Greek Church, the superiors of convents are called hegumcni or mandrites, and general abbots, arehimandritos.