In the fifth period (from 740 to 1040), the Arabs, energetic. brilliant, and victorious in lite rature as in war. had appropriated to them selves the learning of Hindus. Persians, and Greeks, and thus stimulated the Oriental Jews, among whom now sprang up physicians, astron omers, grammarians, commentators. and chron iclers. Religious and historical haggadas, hooks of morality. and expositions of the Talmud were likewise composed. The oldest Talmudic compends belong to the age of Anan (circa 750), the earliest writer of the Karaite Jews. The oldest prayer-book was drawn up about 880, and the first Talmudic dictionary about 900. The most illustrious geonim, of a later time were Saadia (died 942), equally famous as a commen tator and translator of Scripture into Arabic, a doctor of law. a grammarian, philosopher, and poet; Sherira (died 998), and his son Hai (died 103S). who was the author, among other works, of a dictionary. From Palestine came the comple tion of the :Masora and of the vowel system; numerous midrashiw.the hagiographical targums, and the first writings on theological cosmogony were also executed there. From the ninth to the eleventh century Kairwan and Fez, in Africa, produced several celebrated Jewish doctors and authors. Learned rabbins are likewise found in Italy after the eighth century—e.g. Julius in Pavia, etc. Bari and Otranto were at this time the great seats of .Jewish learning., in Italy. After the suppression of the Babylonian academies (1040) Spain and Egypt became chief seats of Jewish literature. To this period belong the old est Hebrew codiees, which go back to the ninth century. Hebrew rhyme is a product of the eighth, and modern Hebrew prosody of the tenth century.
The sixth period (from 3040 to 1204) is the most splendid era of Jewish mediaeval literature. The Spanish Jews busied themselves about the ology, exegeties. grammar, poetry. the science of law, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy. rheto lie. and medicine. They wrote sermons and ethical and historical works. The languages em ployed were Arabic. rabbinical Hebrew, and an cient or classical Hebrew. We can only mention here the great doctor. Samuel Halevi (died 1055), and the renowned Maimonides, whose death closes this epoch. The literature of the French rabbins was more national in its char acter, and kept more strictly within the limits of the halaeha and haggada. Languedoe, which combined the literary charaeteristies of France end Spain, there were celebrated Jewish aead cmies at Lune], Narbonne, and Nimes, and we find Talmudists. such as Berehia Halevi. Abra ham ben David. etc. The fame of the Talmudists of Germany, especially those of Mainz and Regensburg, was very great. Among the most illustrious Jewish writers of this period belong ing to that country are Simeon, the compiler of the Midrashie collection known as the Yalkut, Joseph Kara, and Petahya. Only a few names belong to Greece and Asia : still the Karaite Jews had a very able writer in Juda TIadassi (1148).
The seventh period (from 1204 to 1492) hears manifest traces of the influence exercised by Maimonides. Literary activity showed itself partly in the sphere of theologico-exegetie phil osophy, partly in the elaboration of the national law. With the growth of a religious mysticism there also sprang up a war of opinions between Talmudists. Philosophers, and Cabbalists. The most celebrated Jews of this period lived in Spain. later in Portugal, Provence. and Italy. To Spain belongs (in the thirteenth century) the poet Jehuda al-Hanzi. etc. In the fifteenth cen
tury a decline is noticeable. Books written in Hebrew were printed at Ixar in Aragon (14S5), at Zamora 11487). and at Lisbon (14S9). During this epoch the chief ornaments of Jew ish literature in Languedoc were Moses ben Abraham, David Kimehi, Jernham, Farissol, Isaac 'Nathan, the author of the Hebrew Concord ance. in Italy, Jewish scholars employed them s•lves with the translation of Arabic and Latin works, Works of an ;estheti• character were writ ten by Immanuel ben Solomon, the autlow of the first llebrew sonnets ; 111141 by Moses de Rim i (born 389), who w rote a Hebrew imitation of the Dieina Comm:dia. It was here that the first Hebrew books were printed, at Reggio, 1475; I'ieve di Sacco, 1475; Mantua, 1476; Ferrara, 1477. In France mention may he made of the collectors of the Tosaphot, Moses de Colley, and Jehiel hen Joseph. Germany produced a multi tude of writers on the law, such as Eleazar Halevi, Meyer of Rothenburg, Asher, Isserlin, Lippniann. Most of the extant Hebrew manu scripts belong to this period; but a great part of medieval Jewish literature lies still imprinted in the libraries of Europe.
The e;ghth period (149• to 1755) is not marked by inuell creative or spiritual force among the Jews. In Italy and the East (1492), in Germany and Poland (1550), in llolland (1620), Jewish scholars worked printing presses, while numerous authors wrote in Hebrew. Latin, Spanish, Portuguese. 'Italian, and Judeo-German. Some of the must eminent theologians, philoso phers, historians, mathematicians. poets, commentators, lex pliers, grammarians. etc., of this period were Isaac Abrabanel, Ella :Minh rahi, I. Arama, .T. Habib, Elins Levita, Obadiah 'Sforno, Joseph Cohen. Gedalia ibn Yah•a, Sal. Usque, Asaria de Rossi, David de Pornis, David Cans. Isaac Troki, 1. Luria, J. Caro, Si. Alshe•h, M. Jafts..1. Heller, 1. Abonb. Manasseh ben Israel, David Confo•te, Leo de Modena. B. Slusaphia. J. Eybesehiitz, D. Oppenheimer, J. Emden, M. C. Luzzatto, and others.
The ninth period extends from 1755 to the present time. Encouraged by the spirit of the eighteenth century, Mendelssohn opened, to his eoreligionists, a new era, which, as in the Middle Ages, first manifested itself in the na tional literature. Its character, contents, ex pression, and even its phraseology, were changed. Poetry, language, philology, criticism, education, history, and literature have been earnestly enl tivated. Among the illustrious names of the early part of this period may be mentioned Eze kiel Landau, Elijah \Vilna, Berlin, Mendel: sohn, Nlaimon, Bemla•id, Beer, Enehcl. Benzebh, S. Dulmo; but the real foundation for the work of the modern critical school was laid by L. Zunz, whose Gottesdiensilichr l'ortrage der Judea (Berlin. 1832: 241 ed., Frankfort, 18921 brought liebt for the first time into the history of the Thdrashie literature; and whose works on the religious poetry of the Jews have served as a basis for all later scholars. lie was ably sec onded by S. L. Rapoport, N. Krochmal, M. Jost, S. D. Luzzatto. and M. Steinsehneider. Among those who hate continued the work done by Zunz may he mentioned A. Geiger. L. Dukes. M. Sachs, S. Munk, Reggio. Z. Frankel. L. Lilw, H. Graetz. D. Rosin, M. Joel, A, ,Tellinek. S. Buber, SI. Kayserling. M. Giidemann. D. Kauf mann. .1. Neubauer. A. Berliner. D. Cho•lson, A. Harkavy. S. Schechter, and lsidor Loch.