EUROPE, With the barhariak inva sions of the fifth and sixth centuries there had been a veritable fury of haste to fortify the cities throughout the Roman world. This was particularly noticeable in Gaul• for instance at Grenoble and Vienna, and in Spain, ns at Carta gena. cledia'val cities often—as at Carcassonne —have their later fortifications based on late Ponnan or Gothic prototypes. But ordinarily the Roman fortification was a -ast•nsa, whieh did not inclose the city. City defense seems to have remained at a higher level than feudal castle architecture nntil the twelfth century, for while castles long remained mere earthworks in the north of Europe, cities had stone walls. and even. as at 1'iacen•r.a. two concentric circuits; and while the castle keeps were rectangular• and in the centre of the circuit• the citadels were often curvilinear and astride the outer walls. For a well-preserved fortified city the best ex ample is Carcassonne in Southern France, built during the twelfth and thirteenth venturies. It has an inner and an outer circuit with towers of several shapes• bastions, and barbicans. with a magnifb•ent citadel on the west edge. Cologne,
Cracow., Aigues-Mortes, and Nuremberg have more or less complete mediaeval fortifications, usually of somewhat later date.
In so far as military art•hitecture is connected with art and not science, the thirteenth. and espe chilly the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were the golden age in Europe, because then strength was no longer the sohe object. and :esthetic lieauty was as much aimed at in these structures as in cathedral. monastic., or private architecture, in so far as consistent with safely. This trans formation so far as it affected feudal buildings has been described under CASTLE, and is exem plified by such structures as Vajda-Hunyad castle in Hungary, Alarienburg in Prussia. and the ducal castle of Milan. The exquisite de tails of Gothic architecture and decoration, vaulted halls, giant fireplaces, tracery, and sur face decoration were multiplied. The city gates, as at Liibeck, Cologne, Tangermiinde, Stendal, became works of municipal decoration as well as defense. Consult the bibliography at the and of the article CASTLE.