The courses of study in the primary schools arc in general determined by State laws. In addi tion, the Minister of Public Instruction, in con sultation with the SuperMr Council, determines the programmes of instruction even in details of considerable minuteness, and also rules for the conduct of the schools. In general, the pri mary schools give instruction in moral and civic matters, reading, writing. arithmetic (with sim ple geometry), history and geography (particu larly of France), elementary science, drawing, singing, manual work (including needle-work for girls), gymnastic exercises, and for boys, military drill. 'the superior primary schools have, in addition, algebra and geometry, biological and physical sciences, with applications to agricul ture, industries, and hygiene. political economy, the French language and literature, general his tory, industrial and commercial geography, iron and wood work for boys, and cutting and fitting for girls. (Inc foreign language also is taught. The apprentice, commercial, and technical schools emphasize, of course, work preparing for special vocations. The courses of study for the secondary schools are laid down by law, and were modified in 1890 and 1891 in order to make them conform more completely with modern demands. They were again modified in 1901 and 1902. The entire course occupies eleven years. Four years are spent in the primary department and pupils can take this work in the free primary schools. They will, however, be under the disad vantage of not taking a course of three years in a modern language. The secondary school proper has a course of seven years, divided into two parts. During the first four years the work may be in either of two courses, in one of which Latin is obligatory and Greek optional, and in the other neither is taken. For the last three years there are four courses presented for choice. These courses emphasize respectively Latin-Greek, tat in-modern languages, Latin-scienee, and scienee-modern languages. During the last year of the course options in either philosophy or mathematics are offered.
The programmes in all the secondary schools of France are rigidly laid down by statutes and regulations of the central Department of Educa tion, and general uniformity exists.
The system of inspection in France comes in to insure this uniformity in curriculum and methods. It extends to sanitary conditions as well as to instruction, although such inspection is in the hands of the regular medical inspectors of the localities. Uniformity of results is
brought about by a regular system of examina tions carried on by outside authho•ities. An ex amination for a certificate of primary studies may he given to pupils at the age of eleven, and those passing are exempt from further emnpul sory attendance. It is earried on in the cantons by examiners appointed by the rectors of the academies. A special departmental commission holds yearly an examination for certificates in highhe• primary studies. The secondary schools also have their final examinations for degrees condueted by outside examiners. Indeed, as the primary schools are the product of the central republican governments of France, so the lyceies are part of the imperial scheme of education de vised by .Napoleon, and both therefore are char acterized by the system. uniformity, and depend ence on central authority that their origin would insure.
Private schools in France require the sanction of the State, but can receive no support from pub lic funds. The mayor or academic inspector can oppose them in the interests of hygiene, murals, or public order. They arc free in regard to their programmes and methods, but their teachers must have received the certificate of capacity. For the most part. they have been under the control of religious Orders or congregations, and their large attendance was due to the demand for more religious instruction on the p,u•t of sonic classes. These congregations, however, were alleged to be in many- eases hostile to the Republic. The Catho lic Orders were particularly aimed at in this charge. The Ministry of Waldeck-Rousseau at tacked their independence in the 'law of associa tions' that became a law July 1, 1901. By it all congregations are required to obtain official authorization in order to get legal recognition as such. All unauthorized congregations are absolutely forbidden to give instruction. Ify this means a careful scrutiny of the conduct of the affairs of such bodies is made pos sible, and the character of their instruction inspected. The law contemplates the suppression of all congregations that shall resist such scrutiny. During, the year 1901-0•' the :Min istry presided over by Premier Conches compelled many thousands of unauthorized clerical schools to close their doors. In 1903 supplementary legislation to the Association Bill resulted in practically closing all the clerical schools both anthorized and unauthorized.
The universities of F'ranc'e are discussed more at length under UNIVERSITY.