FRANCE.
The French system of education affords the best example of centralization and uniformity in educational affairs that the world has seen. It has been built up since the Revolution. and in stead of taking charge of existing schools (most of which were clerical) the French Government has established its own system, which has been gradually replacing other educational agencies. The latest act in this drama of rivalry is the active suppression by the State of a large part of the instruction carried OD by religious asso ciations. To this reference will he made later. The present system of elementary instruction may be said to have begun with Guizot's law of 1833, by which each commune was required to establish a primary school and each department a normal school. Not until 1875, however, when the central Government began to grant and loan money to communes for the construction of school buildings, did this law become really effective. The present organic law was passed in 1886.
The system of public instruction in France comprises three departments, primary, secondary, and higher. They are all under centralized con trol. At the head of the system stands the Min ister of Public Instruction, who is a Cabinet of ficer. Each of the great departments has a spe cial director. The central administration in cludes, in addition, the Superior Council of Pub lic Instruction, and the general inspectors. The Superior Council consists of about 60 members, and has advisory and judicial functions. One fourth of its members are appointed by the ]'resident. Other vacancies are filled by the Council itself. It has a committee to consult with the school authorities regarding school mat ters. Officials exist for the inspection of every phase of school work.
For convenience in educational administration, France (including Algeria ) is organized into 17 academies. Each one comprises a university, associated lyci.es, and colleges, and the public primary schools within its limits. At the head are a rector, an academic council, composed of professors and officers of education, and an aca demic inspector. Under the academic inspectors serve the primary inspectors, who come in direct touch with the schools, each one having super vision of about 150. The departments of France, of which there arc 90, constitute the next divi sion for school administration. The prefect has
the power of appointing elementary teachers, and there is an advisory council for primary schools composed of teachers, school inspectors, and members of the civic council. In the communes the councils and mayors select sites for school buildings, and vote the funds for the communal school expenditures. There are also committees formed to encourage school attendance.
It has been said that the control of schools in France is highly centralized. Tffie President of the Republic appoints the 1\linister of Instruction, the general inspectors, the professors in the uni versities, the rectors of the academies, the pre fects of the departments. Of these, the general inspectors have passed a special examination, and professors in the universities'are chosen from lists submitted by the Superior Council and the university council. The general inspectors and the rectors arc appointed on nomination by the Minister of Public Instruction, and his advice is asked regarding the professors. Ile appoints the rest of the officials of the central department, the central examMation boards, the academy in spectors, the primary inspectors, the secondary teachers, the officials in the normal schools, and in the superior elementary schools. Inspectors are drawn only from the ranks of experienced teachers, who have held important positions. They are required to pass a special examination. So, too, are the professors in normal schools. The primary teachers are required to pass an exami nation or to be graduates of normal schools.
There are three grades of certificates, elementary, superior, and professional. For the last, stress is laid on knowledge of professional matters, and two years' teaching experience is required. The examination includes a test in actual teaching before inspectors. Only ,uch as pass it can become principals. The elementary teachers are appointed at lir,t on probation by the academy inspectors, and if successful are, on his recom mendation, appointed by the departmental pre fects. The entire body of educational officials is therefore practically in the. hands of the Presi dent. the MIlister of Public Instruction, and the academic inspector.