of the musical development of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries WAS centred in Paris. The troubadours, trouveres, jongleurs, and minne singers, who cultivated poetry and music. play no small part in the advancement of the art. They developed epic, lyric, and dramatic art. and spread over France, Germany, even the south of England. Some of the better-known were Thi baut, King of Navarre, Count of Champagne, Adam de la Hale. who Wrote Robin and Manion— a play with music and dialogue interspersed—and laler Walther V011 der Vogelweide, Wolfram von Esehenbach, Franc)]lob, and Ilans Sachs. Eng land gives us the round 'Sumer is icumen (see ItoNno), and there are fragments of works by MarchauIt de Aluris, Tunstede, and De Handlo in the fourteenth century NVIliell are not promising examples. The Netherlands in the early part of the fifteenth century showed signs of re-awakening energy, the first representative composer being Dufay, in the service of Philip the Good of Burgundy. Ilk style was crude, showing the influence of John Dunstable. an Englishman (c.1400-1433), who at one time Was regarded as the greatest composer in Europe. After Fatigues. Caron, Busnois, the next figure of importance is Okeghem. who lived until 1313. Ile, too, was a Fleming. Ile is known to fame, howev(br, as the master of Jos(plin Depres (born about 1450), a genius. lie wrote church and veniar music with equal facility and was in the Papal choir from 1471 to 1484. llis pupils were Jean Slonton and Nicholas Combert. Obrecht, chapel-master at Utrecht, was another loan of ability. The art of printing from music types was first practiced in the early part of the sixteenth century ( 1501 ). This led to an increased ac tivity among composers, and soon came an inter esting list of names, such as Adrian Wiliaert (1490-1502), attached to Saint Cathe dral, Venice; Philip Verdelot (about 1500-67), composer of madrigals, canzonas; Jacques Area delt (c.1514-c.1575), and others. Constanzo Festa was the first Italian composer of promi nence ( I 543 ) . But We not forget other Netherland own, Jaeque; Clemens. Cyprian Van Bove, Walracnt, Phillipus del Monte. and Orlando di Lasso (1520-94), who continued to write good music even after the Italian su premacy. Orlando di Lasso is famous for his setting of the Penitential Psalms. which contain much lovely and characteristic music. Then for a time the Italians, Zarlino, the two Gabrielis, Claudio Alerulo (1533-1(104), Alarenzio, a great organist, and Palestrina held the field. The latter was born at the town from which he takes his name about 1514. Ile studied under Claude Gond Intel, a Frenchman. The "Pope Mareellus was written in 1565. and in it the climax of ecclesiastical music way l'alestrina was the greatest master of pure choral style; he closed an epoch when he flied in 1594. Ilk contemporaries and pupils were a Spaniard: Nanini, Vittoria, also a Spaniard and second only to Palest rina; Giovanni Croce, and Allegri. In Germany, Heinrich Isaak, .Johann Walther—the friend of Luther—Gallus, Stalzer, and Ilans Leo Hassler (1564-1612), the latter a pupil of Andrea Gabrieli, passed on the torch of tradition, keeping it aflame by their own honest efforts. In England there was a musical activity that has not been paralleled since in the history of the nation. Christopher Tye, John Merbeck. Thomas his celebrated pupil William Ityrd. Edwards. Whythorne, Nicholas Vonge, Thomas Morley, Thomas Weelkes, John Howland ( 1562.1626), Thomas Batesen, Orlando Gibbons 115'43.1625), John Bull, \V. Forster, Benjamin Cosyris, John Blow, wrote wonderfully sparkling. vigorous, and original music. All England sang their eatches, roundelays. madrigals. motets. and the more cultivated played their virginal and lute musk. Indeed, the labginnings of music for the clavichord, harpsichord, and modern pianoforte may he f0111111 in the literature of Byrd, Gib bons, Bull, and others. The school culminated in Purcell (1658-93). Whether because of Puritan ical influences or the advent of the Italians and later George Frederick Handel, an overwlublming composer, certainly England has produced no other such original genius as Henry Purcell.
The currents of music 110W begin to 1'1111 swifter, opera and oratorios absorbing the ears of the civilized world thanks to the work of .lonteverde, Lolly, Purcell. Alessandro Scarlatti, Lotto, Dil Leo, Handel, and Bach. (See ORATORIO.) This article will in the main confine itself to purely instrumental music and its progress. The crudeness of the viol family was giving way to the finished specimens of Italian violin-makers' art, and with improved instruments conle music of a better quality and Wider range. (Sec Vtoux.) The organ, which aided the growth of types of choral music, was now become a more highly differentiated instrument, and music per sc was heard from its pipes. (See OrtuAN.) The fore runners of the pianoforte (see PIANOFORTE) were engaging the attention of composers, and the orchestra (see ORCHESTRA), front a simple gather ing of heterogeneous instruments, many of them ollsolete to-day, wai gradually approximating its present size. Parry divides the history of in strumental into thrSe periods: the first extends from the early experiments in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tip to the time of Bach: the seeond up to Beethoven; the third to the present day. Contrapuntal methods prevailed during the first ; the second saw the development of pure harmonic forms of the sonata order, culminating in Beethoven; the third was marked by modifications of the form with greater freedom in contrapuntal devices, and the patent factor of orchestration playing a powerful. part. There was much graceful, fantastic dance music written for the elavecin and harpsichord by Purcell and Luny, while Chambonieres and Couperin composed what are now known as suites, then called ordres, composed of lively (lance movements out of \Odell the sonata grew. ( SONATA.) Ca inbert and Lully also wrote ballads with overtures. Roth C011periii and Pameau (1653-17(14) contributed excellent music for the elavecin, and, being, supple performers. (lid
much to advance the purely formal side of com position, while in their suggestive titles we sec the humble beginnings of programme music. Organ-playing was growing apace, Cabrieli. Me Sweelinck of Amsterdam, Beinken, Fresco habil, Scheidt, Froberger, a pupil of Frescobahli, Merl, Pachelbet, and Buxteltude the Dane, all helping to rear the mighty fabric of fugue and ..onala which eulminated in Bach. In Italy, Amati. Stradivarius, and Guarnerius stimulated the genius of A rcangelo Corelli ( 1653-1713 ) . who gave tlie world his sonatas and concertos for stringed instruments aecompanied by chord or The first set of twelve were called "Sonata (la the second set of twelve "Sonata fla The first, patterned after the churehly form, was in four movements, and is a prototype of the modern sonata : the see. and is a dance suite, eonsi-iding of Allemande, Commie. Sarabande, Giga or Gavotte. Aral the inu-sie, as we can testify to-day, is sweet, sane. and Then followed a gifted group of C'orelli's pupils, Norris, Locatelli. Geminiani, Verneini. Vivaldi, and Tartini. Being virtuosi, they all helped to solidify the teeltnique of their instrument as well as of musical forms. Among the Germans of this period may be mentioned Von Biber (1638-98). Handel (1685-1759), busy as he was with opera, oratorios, and the fatiguing duties of an impresario in London, found time to compose suites for the harpsichord as well as concertos for organ, violin sonatas, and overtures for his choral works. He was hardly a path breaker, for he followed obvious Italian models, though he stamped everything he wrote with the seal of his vigorous genius. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) was first and last the ideal organist ; into its literature he poured the purest treasures of his extraordinary genius. A set of fugues, concertos, and toccatas (see CONCERTO; FUGUE) that have never been equaled, the rich ness of which is far from being exhatn4ed, were given the world by this modest cantor of Leipzig, who still found time to compose the Well-Tem Clavichord, that unique collection of forty eight preludes and fugues for a clavier tuned in equal temperament, so that all keys are equally available instead of some being in particular tune in order that a few others might be so. (Sec TEMPERAMENT.) He also wrote the English and French suites and partitas for the clavier, as well as the Italian concerto and those delightful lessons, two-part and three-part inventions. On Bach's prodigality of utterance, the astounding variety and depth of his music, its science, its art, its formal beauty and emotional significance, there is little need to dwell now. The great Pas sions, the violin compositions, and the clavier and organ music, chorales and motets arc a part of the world's most precious art heritages. His perfection, his inauguration, form the matrix of all latter-day music. He has infhienced Bee thoven, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn. \Vag ner, Brahms, and Richard enormously. The orchestra of his days was still in an amor phous condition and he wrote for it as he did for other instruments, thoroughly, and as a me dium for the expression of his ideas. Personality in music revealed itself with no uncertainty in Bach's case. Some of Bach's predecessors, Kul man, Matthesen, and INInffat, wrote sonatas and suites. Domenico Sea rlat t ( 1683-c.1757 ) , the son of Alessandro, wrote operas and church music, as did his father, but soon became the most famous harpsicho•di.st of his (lay, the Liszt of the eigh teenth century. His compositions show the ex pert virtuoso, and are remarkable for being the first works of the kind in which the fugue and dance are not essential. The key-grouping and arrangement of the movements, with phrasal repetition, set his music ahead of its time and link it with Mozart and the early sonata mas ters.. Galuppi and Parades' in his foot steps. Slowly the contrapuntal style gave way to the harmonic, the Italians simplified the scheme by writing luscious melodies with a slight accompaniment, and after Co•elli (1653-1713) the decadenee began. Tartini, Viotti, Rode, Bail lot, all noble artists, continued the ('o•elli tradi tion. Bach's sons, Karl Philipp Emanuel and Johann Christian, were worthy descendants, though without his masterful grip. The former made the model for the sonata that Haydn fol lowed, and Johann Christian wrote sonatas, symphonies, and operas. Symphonies (see SYM PHONY) had been attempted by Abel, Esser, Wagensail, but the form received its first shap ing by Haydn and Mozart. Haydn (1732-1809) began by studying the clavier sonatas of Philipp Emanuel Bach and ended under the influence of 16: one-time pupil Mozart (1756-91). The Haydn string quartets and some of 16s sym phonies and piano sonatas are inimitable. Mozart polished the symphony during his short, crowded life, and left us such masterpieces as the E flat, C major, and G minor symphonies. On his way to Paris in 1777 lie stopped at Mannheim, where Stamitz conducted the best orchestra in Europe. There he learned the possibilities of instrumenta tion. :Mozart had the real colo•-sense. and his orchestral writing shows a feeling for the varying timbres, and a balance of the various choirs hitherto unsuspected. His orchestra was a inure elastic and highly organized instrument. and it lent itself to the most complicated types of com position. The wood and brass choirs were in dividualized, and writing for the string quartet had reached a degree of perfeetion. The dexterity displayed by Mozart was not lost on Haydn, and some of it was reflected in the operatic com posers who followed him, though it may be con fessed that Gluck (1714-87), Ins great contem porary, benefited little by his novel researches; indeed, he pocsibly never went out of his way to hear the D major symphony, which is said to have been given in Paris while the composer of Or/co was there. Nineteenth-century operatic composers like \Veber, Berlioz, Meyerbeer, \Vag ner, and Verdi in his later years, were the first to colleen] themselves with the possibilities of orchestra color enhancing the dramatic situation or contributing atmosphere.