Alexander I. of Russia first granted a liberal constitution, a separate standing army, and lib erty of the press. This, however, did not prevent the Polish nobles from conspiring for the restora tion of the liberties of their country. Secret so cieties. as elsewhere in Europe, fomented the re volt, and a general insurrection of the people, headed by the aristocracy. took place. On Novem ber 29, 1530, a military insurrection broke out at Warsaw. and in a short time the Russians were driven from the country. The leadership of the movement was assumed by a number of nobles, most prominent of whom was Prince Adam Czar toryski (q.v.). Chlopieki (q.v.) was appointed dictator. In January. 1831, the independence of Poland was proclaimed, and Czartoryski was made head of the national Govern ment. Chlopieki having laid down his dictatorship. A Russian army under Diebiteck invaded the country. The Poles fought with their wonted bravery and for months kept the enemy at bay, but their main army. under Skrzynecki, was de feated at on May 26th. Paskevitch, who succeeded to the command of the Russian forces on the death of Diebitseh. carried on the war with vigor, and was aided by the inveterate dissensions among the Poles. Warsaw w-as taken on September Sth, and the Polish armies sought refuge on Prussian and Austrian soil. Dilatori ness on the part of the military leaders and the delay occasioned by fruitless negotiations with Emperor Nicholas had proved fatal errors.
There followed for those who had participated in the rebellion imprisonment, banishment, con fiscation. and enforced service in the Russian army. From this time all self-government in Poland was suppressed. The liberal Constitu tion of 1815 and laws were abrogated: strict censorship of the press and the Russian spy po lice system were established in all their vigor: the country was robbed of its rich literary collec tions and works of art ; and the most severe and arbitrary measures were taken to Russianize the people. Large numbers of Poles were forced to take refuge in France and elsewhere, where they carried on an active revolutionary propaganda, and some of them played an important part in the for liberty in other countries. (See BEM; DEMBINSKI.) The year 1846 witnessed an other effort on the part of the Poles to shake off the yoke that had been imposed upon them. The movement did not proceed far. In Prussian Po land (Posen) it was promptly checked by the arrest of Mieroslawski (q.v.) and other leaders, while in Galicia the peasantry (in great part Ruthenians) rose against the nobles. the leaders in the outbreak, and massacred many of them. In the same year the Republic of Cracow was incorporated with Austria. In 184S there was an insurrection in Posen, which was quickly sup pressed. After the accession of Alexander II., of Russia, in 1855. the condition of the Poles was considerably ameliorated, and an act of amnesty brought back many of the expatriated Poles.
The Czar evinced by his acts his readiness to make far-reaching concessions to his Polish sub jects, but in spite of this there were violent revo lutionary demonstrations in I563, which were re pressed with bloodshed. In 1862 a regime of par
tial autonomy was inaugurated under the guid ance of Marquis Wielopolski. a member of the Polish aristocracy: hut the Russian Government was not trusted by the Poles, and a revolutionary fever had taken hold of the youth. which found vent in fresh outbreaks and in attempts to assas sinate the Viceroy Constantine (brother of the Czar) and Wielopolski himself. The Russian Government proceeded to stern repressive meas ures, and in January, 1863. resorted to a barba rous expedient in order to quell the revolutionary spirit—a wholesale conscription. suddenly exe cuted, which should at one stroke remove the pa triotic young men from the field of their activity. This measure, whieh could be but partially carried out, brought matters to a crisis and the country rose in insurrection. This movement differed from the preceding uprisings in that it was largely a democratic agitation and was carried on under the guidance of a secret revolutionary commit tee. This body issued its first proclamation in February. 1863, and a week afterwards Miero slawski raised the standard of insurrection on the Posen frontier. The principal commander of the patriots was Langiewiez. It was little more than a mere guerrilla war. and no great or de cisive conflicts took place. The sympathy of Europe w-as largely enlisted on behalf of the Poles. but the remonstranees of the Powers were wholly disregarded by the Czar's Ministers. The Poles fought heroically against desperate odds. The national committee continued to guide the revolt and resorted to terrorism, even nation, to carry out its measures and enforce obedience. The overwhelming numbers of the Russians soon carried everything before them, and early in 1864 the last sparks of the insur rection were stamped out. Large numbers of the patriots were executed and crowds were trans ported to Siberia. Lithuania and other parts of old Poland. not included in the so-called king dom. were at once subjected to a process of Rus sification, which was carried out with extraordi nary barbarity. By an Imperial ukase of Feb ruary 23, 1868. the government of Poland was completely incorporated with that of Russia. Russian has been made time language of the ad ministration and of the schools. To the Polish peasantry Russian government brought a boon in the shape of emancipation (I sfill. The Panslay ists of Russia (see PANSLAVISM) regard agitation for Polk]] nationality as treason to the „realer cause of Slavic union. In spite of the measures directed against it, the Poles of Ihissia cling firmly to their and their authors and jounialists keep aline their attachment to their native tongue. Galicia, where eonstitutional government exists under Austrian rule. is a great stronghold of Polish nationality, Craeow holding a phiee to N\ arsaw as an intellectual focus of the people.