POLITICAL SCIENCE. That branch of the social sciences which deals with the organization and life of the State. It comprises the considera tion of the general problem of the origin and na ture of the State: investigations into constitu tional forms, political forces. and modes of pub lie administration; and the attempt to establish sound rules and maxims of political action. The characteristic feature of political and legal. as distinguished from purely social. facts lies in the presence. in connection with the former, of a definitely organized personal endowed with determinate functions and enforcing its de crees by a fixed sanction.
In the original Greek sense 'politics' refers to the entire art of realizing the ethical ideal in the State by the establishment and maintenance of orderly government; but in modern times this term is often used in a much more restricted sense. The characteristic political fact. accord ing to the modern usage of language. is the strug gle for personal authority in an organized com munity. as well as the struggle for the maintenance of the power of the whole State. The definite or ganization of power for the purposes of orderly government, the marshaling of popular support and of popular opinion, the creation of centres of control, and the defense of the entire struc ture of the State against attacks from without and from within—these constitute the characteristic problems of polities in the narrower sense. 'When ever we deal with the dynamic facts of State life we therefore have primarily 'political' considera tions. This is the case in such subjects as diplo macy and international polities, party politics, and all the creative activities of the government. In this sense it is a political action to appeal to voters and to Organize them into parties, to ad vance the candidacy of certain persons for office, to create a willingness for effecting changes in the law, or to obtain treaty advantages from for eign powers.
But State life may also be viewed as static— established in certain permanent forms and ad ministered according to fixed rules. Here the con ditions of political struggle for power and advan tage are almost entirely eliminated and the State is looked upon as a commonwealth administered for the benefit of all citizens. The studies of public law (international, constitutionai, and ad ministrative), jurisprudence, and the technical methods of administration belong under this head ing. They deal with State life as settled, as ad ministered only by expert authorities and not im mediately affected by the popular struggle for political power. By analogy this group of studies may be said to deal with the anatomy of the State, while the dynamic studies deal with it,s physiology.
Though the fundamental fact of political strug gle wilt always remain the chief characteristic of politics, it must also be noted that the sphere of static institutions is constantly expanding as the State develops in civilization. In the earlier
ages the struggle for power swallowed up all available energies, and all considerations were subordinated to the political success of competing groups. Administration was viewed merely as the opportunity of the ruling group to fortify its position and to enjoy the fruits of power and influence. Even the 'benevolent despotism' of the eighteenth century held that the chief reason why the prosperity of the lower (lasses should be pro tected was to maintain their value to the Gov ernment as taxpayers. In an absolute monarchy the intrigues among contending factions seeking royal favor usually absorb the entire attention of the political classes, leaving but little to be devoted to the of the common weaith. Now although a system in which politi cal struggle would be entirely eliminated is per haps inconceivable, the ideal of a commonwealth demands that the ordinary administration of the State be placed as inuell as possible outside of the sphere of personal struggles for political power. For this reason the civil service should be ren dered independent of political changes and an expert administration placed in charge of the current affairs of the eommenwealth. the practical problems of politics at the present time there is none more important than the question as to how far the political representa tives of the citizens—time parliamentary hody can profitably control, and interfere with, expert administration. While the sphere of parliamen tary interference and control over the adminis trative departments may seem to he contracting, this is not to be taken as a sign of the absolute failure of parliamentary government, but as an indication that the development is toward a more perfect adjustment between the popular or political and the expert agencies in government.
Above the two aspects of political dynamics and statics, and embracing them both, there stands political theory or political philosophy, which deals with the general problem of the na ture of the State. Viewing the State as a univer sal form of human association, it attempts to analyze the principles upon which its authority rests and according to which its functions are performed. Closely allied to it is the subject of political ethics, which tests the ideals of State forms and of political action. Among the Greeks these various aspects of political thought were not dissociated; politics were considered as the means of giving practical form and existence to the true ethical ideals. The Hellenic sense of concrete vision, however, guarded against a con fusion of existing institutions with the ideal schemes of philosophical discussion. This distinc tion was not kept clear in the .Middle Ages, and in self-defense the modern school of political science, following Alachiavelli, has striven clearly to distinguish the actual from the ideal.