ROMANTICISM (1g22-62). Romantieism, which placed feeling above reason. answered the condi tion of Poland. The Ode to Youth. of Mickie wiez struck a responsive chord in the hearts of his countrymen. From such feelings proceeded the love for the miraculous (destined to develop into mysticism a little later) and national folk lore abounding in it. The educational reforms of Czacki and Czartoryski brought more learning: the poets sought recognition from their people as a whole, and not from patrons. The lyceum at Krzemieniec, with its inspired historian Lelewel poetically reproducing the ancient times. turned out a score of students who became the dissemi nators of Romanticism in their poetical and criti cal works, all of which aimed at creating a na tional poetry. Amons the various factors in this literary movement the so-called Ukrainian (Little Russian) school was the most prominent. Among its representatives Malczewski (1793 18°6) was the bard of the nobility: Zaleski (1802-86) glorified free Cossaekdom; Goszezynski (1803-76) sang with epic simplicity the customs and of the Haidamaks. Zaleski's poems appearing in 1822 passed unnoticed. A few months later another collection of poems ap Feared, and from those the period of Romanti cism was dated. These were by Adam Alickie wicz (q.v.) (179S-IS55), the greatest name in Polish literature. ThCy exposed the author to attack from the adherents of Pseudo-Classicism, hut soon those were either turned into romantics or were silenced. Before long the opposition to the romantic movement resulted in the exile of AlickieNA icz and others, and almost all the poets then emigrated. Closely allied with liekiewiez were twos of nearly equal as Krasinski (q-v.1, nho began with universal ideals (in his rtd7ciur Corm dy) and then narrowed to pure nationalism (in /r.adimi, Dawn. and Psidons of the l'ainir). Unlike him, Slowacki had a definite purpose. Being a pronouneed democrat, he endeavored to trace in a series of poetic works the democratic- tendencies in the culture and development of Pmdand. Around these three great peels gathered a number of lesser lights like Zan. (4a rezinski, Gorecki, Odyniee, and others. But soon the leaders be came my-die,. Slowacki's Foetus became su misty and involved that they were no longer understood. Ihmwever, the clouds of mysticism passed away, and a more speenlatiwe and (-aim attitude toward reality set in among the work ers. Wikenty Pol represented the past in au hk-al light. Sigi-anund Kaczkowski and fizewnski ably seconding him in his efforts. Kondratowiez ( IS33-02. pseudonym Wholisiaw Syrokomla), in his stories in verse, was the in spired singer of the Aspirations of peasants and the small bourgeoisie. Lenartowiez (1822-93) took his themes trout popular legends, preserv ing their simplicity in a delicate poetic form. After the apathy immediately following the revo lution of wore away. there grew up a group of beothusmsts,' who wanted another revolution. Among the poets, who, with the ex ception of Pot and Kondratowiez. were all for revolution. tjejski in his Biblical Melodies, and ,teremiah's Lament described Poland under the name of Judea, and his cheraf became the na tional anthem. Thus period of storm ant stress evolved two distinct (1111'111s of political and philosophical thought in Polish literature: one turbulent. (poetry) tending toward revolution, the other calm (inwel and romance) toward grad ual evolution. Tin- novel, which was originally purely sentimental, received its high state of per fection at the hands of Kraszewski (qx.) (1812 S7).
\7om:ox PEntoo (18(32-1900). Kraszewski re flected in his writings all the various currents of thought. ever seeking the 'golden mean.' Josef Korzeniowski was a deeper psychologist. and preached inure progressive s, combating the prejudices of the nobility. Among those who idealized reality, Chodzko, Czaj kowski, and the poetess Jadwiga Lusiezewska may be mentioned. Zygmunt Itilkowski (pseu donym .1(41 was an energetic ehannbion of democratic ideas, even in his historical novels. and Zachariasiewiez with Plug (pseudonym of Pietkiewiez) followed closely in his steps. This period was in the beginning very similar to that subsequent to 1831, only the hope for resto ration was weakened still more. The character
istic feature was the growth of the periodical press. which soon took the lead in the spiritual life of Poland. Books were printed in cheap edi tions in great quantities to supply the demand for them among the masses. Positivism, eco nomic questions, the material and spiritual wel fare of the country were now of paramount im portance. The chief organs for spreading these views were the WccfaJ keriew and Truth. of the monthlies, the Atheneum, representing the pro gressive elements, rile Warsaw Library being the mouthpiece of the eonservatives. About the inhl dle of the seventh-s the strife between the two camps lost a good deal of its bitterness. In the three parts of the former Poland all efforts are directed toward the moral and intellectual uplifting of the masses, with the Warsaw weekly, The l'oier, as champion of the people's rights. All these economic, political, and philosophical tendencies have found expression in literature, lyric poetry being least influenced by the various currents of thought. At the head of lyric poets stands Adam Astryk (1838-97), a master of form. Marva Kontipnicka pleads the rause of the 'downtrodden and oppressed' in her lyrics, and she is famous for her short stories. The two writers mentioned have also distin guished themselves in the department of drama. \Viktor Gomulicki is the 'poet of nature and feeling,' possessing an unusually tender and ex pressive style. The comedy of the present day deals chiefly with social questions, in a light, satirical way. It is lively and witty, the situa tions are natural, and the action is interesting and rapid. The most prominent writer of come dies is Fredro the younger. Ilistorical dramas, written by Szujski and others, are not very nu merout, and are not so well liked by the public as dramas of manners and social questions. Among the writers of modern dramas Aleksander Swetochowski, Waclaw Karezewski, and Mad. islaw Raliski hold an important place. The chief characteristics of the modern novel are a highly perfected teehnique and great variety in the sub jects, the characters depicted, and the tendencies of the authors. For these reasons the modern Pol ish novel is more fully representative of the epoch than is dranat or poetry. Its brightest names are Sienkiewicz, Boleslaw Prus, and Eliza Orzesz kowa. Of the latest writer:: Klemens Junosza has drawn in a plastic and humorous style the life of peasants, Jews. and the small nobility; Ignaey Maciejowski also depicts peasant life; Balucki lashes the shortcomings of the contem porary Polish nobility; Dygasinski deals with life in the country. Several rather unsuccessful attempts have been made to introduce novels in the style of the French naturalistic school, while other writers try to keep up the traditions of Kraszewski. The periodical Life. founded in Cracow in 1897 by Ludwik Szezep:mnski. is the organ of this so-called Young Poland, Stanislaw Przybyshewsk i being the literary leader.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In Polish: \\'iSzniewski, HisBibliography. In Polish: \\'iSzniewski, His- tory of Polish. Literature (10 vols., Cracow, 1840-57) ; Alaeiejowski. Polish Literature (3 vols., Warsaw, 1851-53) (both reach only to the middle of the seventeenth century) ; Zdano wiez-Sowitiski, Outline of the History of Polish Literature (Vilna, 1874-78) ; Kondratowiez, History of Literature in Poland (Vilna, 1851-51) ; Bartoszewiez, History of Polish Literature (Cracow, 1877) ; Dubiecki, History of Polish. Literature (Warsaw, 1889); Biegelei sen, Illustrated History of Polish Literature, vol. i. (Vienna, 1898). In German: Lipnicki, Gm-hie/lie der polnischen Nutional-Littcratur (Mayence, 1873), a short survey; Xitsch mann, Gcschichte der pulnischen Littcratur (2d ed., Leipzig, 1888). The best work is in Russian in the second volume of Pypin and Spasovitch, History of Nlaric Literatures (2(1 ed., Saint Petersburg, 1879-S0) under the title, history of Polish Literature. It exists in a German trans lation by Pech, Grsehichte der slawischen Litter aturen (Leipzig. 1580-84).