GERMAN, AUSTRIAN, AND SWISS UNIVERSITIES. The early German universities were modeled after the University of Paris, though the Univer sity of Bologna had considerable influence on the universities of the South German States; and it is in the German universities that the general organization or structure of the mediaeval univer sities is best preserved. Unlike the early uni versities of France and Italy, those of Germany were not of gradual growth, but were all created and chartered by both King and Pope and often by the Emperor as well. There were seven of these founded in the period to all the early universities belong, that is, to the period previous to the Renaissance movement. The earliest of all was that of Prague, authorized by Pope Clement VI. in 1347, and by the Emperor Charles IV. in the following year. Then followed Vienna, in 1365; Heidelberg, in 1386; Cologne, in 13SS; Erfurt, in 1393; Leipzig, in 1409; and Rostock, in 1419. It is only this group of Ger man universities that incorporated the original organization into nations, and even in these the nations ceased to have any essential importance in the sixteenth century. Leipzig grew out of a secession of 5000 students and teachers from Prague, owing to hostility between the German and Bohemian students, and consequently the organization into nations was important, and continued to exist as a form until the nineteenth century. All these universities yet exist, save Cologne and Erfurt, which disappeared during the period of the French Revolution, The human istic movement of the fifteenth and early six teenth century produced nine new universities, four of which, Greifswald, Freiburg, Basel, and Tfibingen, still exist. One of the others, Witten berg (founded l502), was the most influential of all during the later part of the sixteenth century.
The third period in the history of German universities is that of the Reformation and Counter-reformation, to the close of the seven teenth century. Twenty new foundations date from these two centuries, ten of them Protestant and ten Roman Catholic. Half of each group
has ceased to exist or continue merely as theolog ical faculties under the control of the Church. These foundations were due for the most part to the territorial divisions caused by the religious dissensions, and throughout the period religious interest dominated all the universities, old and new. Consequently the influence, the spirit of the teaching, the manner of life was much more re stricted during this period than in any other. The theological studies dominated. Toward the close of this period the universities of Germany sank to the lowest level of influence and im portance, nor was the character of the work much higher. The court schools and circles of learning outshone the universities themselves.
The new era of the eighteenth century was ushered in by the foundation of Halle (1693) and Gottingen (1737). These two institutions marked the recovery from the stagnation of the seventeenth century. Halle was established in the interest of Lutheranism to combat some of the religious tendencies of the time, but soon outgrew the bounds originally set for it, especially under the influence of the famous Thomasins and Francke. Thomasins was the first to abandon the use of Latin for the German in the lecture room, and his example was soon followed to a greater or lesser extent throughout Germany. A further characteristic of this period was the dom inance of the new rationalistic philosophy over the old scholasticism. The new philosophy recog nized no bounds of authority, and the spirit of in quiry now came to be the dominant spirit of the universities. Instead of the merely formal study of the ancient classics, the various branches of philology were now recognized and pursued. The critical study of history also began. Halle and Gottingen dominate the eighteenth century and are recognized as the first universities of the modern type.