The present period, in which the scientific spirit of the nineteenth century is prOminent, opened after a period of upheaval consequent upon the Napoleonic wars. Nine of the old universities were suppressed and four combined with others. One of the measures adopted by the Prussian Government was the reformation of existing uni versities in the direction of greater freedom of thought. and the founding of the new University of Berlin in 1809. The influence of Berlin on other German universities has been paramount. Many antiquated and useless features have been abandoned and during the past century professor ships in every branch of learning were established. The University of Bonn was founded in 1818 and has rapidly gained preUminence, especially in phi losophy and philology.
At present the German universities are strict ly State institutions and are subject to the 'Min ister of Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Medical Affairs' of the respective States in which each is situated. Each, however, enjoys a high degree of autonomy and their constitutions are essentially republican. The internal administration of the university is in the hands of a rector, or, in case this title is borne by the sovereign, a pro rector, a dean of each faculty, the senates academicus, and the qumstor or treasurer. The discipline of the university over its students is maintained by means of a 'University Court,' composed of certain members of the faculty of law. The penalties inflicted arc reprimands, fines, imprisonment in the University Career, deprivation of credit, suspension, and expulsion, the two latter holding good not only for the one but for all German universities. Aside from this the university exercises no control over its ktu dents, and there are, save in a few exceptional instances, no such institutions as colleges, halls, or dormitories. The term faculty signifies either (1) the teaching body, especially the full profes sors, or (2) the teachers and students in one of the great divisions of the university. At every
German university there are faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, and either Protestant or Roman Catholic theology. In a few, such as .Munich and Strassburg, an additional faculty in political science or in natural science has been organized. The teaching body of a Gernhan uni versity consists of (1) full professors (ordiaarii, ordentlic1c Professoren), (2) extraordinary pro fessors (a usserordentlichc), and (3) Prieatdoeen ten.. To these are to he added (4) readers (Icc toren), appointed to give practical instruction in modern languages; there are also (5) masters of dancing, fencing, riding, etc., whose connection with the university is often merely nominal. The full professors are the occupants of chairs in tended to be permanent foundations; they alone sit in the Senatus Academicus, and are alone eligible to the rectorship and deanships. The extraordinary professors are either younger men, to whom the professorial title has been granted by the Government for distinguished work, or they represent subjects in which no permanent chairs have been established; sometimes both conditions are exemplified in the same individual. The Privutdogenten are graduates who receive permission to lecture, but receive no official ap pointment and depend for their remuneration for the most part upon fees received from students. They are not subject to the authority of the pro fessors, but from them are selected the ausscr ordentlicrc Professoren.
The only degrees given by the German univer sities at the present day arc those of doctor and licentiate ; the latter is given only in theology. The university degrees do not, as such, admit the re cipient to the exercise of his profession in the Church, law, medicine, or the higher teaching service; for this, the passing of the State exami nation is necessary.
For a list of German, Austrian, and Swiss uni versities, see articles on the respective countries. The principal universities are described in sep arate articles.