Selim III., under the influence of French thought, had conceived extensive ideas of reform, which he endeavored to put in operation when he ascended the throne. Many of his innova tions were premature and he aroused the anger of the Janizaries by his attempts at military reorganization. A revolt forced Selim to abdicate in 1807, and placed his nephew, Alustapha IV. (1807-08), on the throne. Mustapha was soon de posed and Mahmud II. ( 1808-39) was made Sultan. A war begun by Russia in 1806 was terminated by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812, by which the country between the Dniester and the Pruth was ceded to Russia. The authority of the Sultan was reestablished in Servia, but the people rose again Milosh Obrenovitch and achieved a partial independence. Greece threw off the Turkish yoke in 1821 and after an heroic struggle secured its independence through the armed intervention of the European powers in 1827-29. A revolt of the Janizaries in 1825 was successfully met by Mahmud; in 1826 thousands of the famous corps were slain, and the organiza tion was abolished. Russia waged a suc cessful war against Turkey in 1828-29. General Diebitseh advanced as far as Adrianople, and Paskevitch was equally successful in Armenia. In the Peace of Adrianople ( 1S29) Turkey sur rendered to Russia the northeastern coastland of the Black Sea and transferred to her the suzer ainty over the tribes of the Caucasus; Russia was accorded a regular protectorate over Wallachia and Moldavia, which for a time were reduced to the position of Russian dependencies. Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, who had raised himself to an almost independent position, made war in 1831 on his liege lord, the Sultan. Tbc victories of Ibrahim Pasha (1832) secured to the Egyptian ruler the possession of Syria and Cilieia, while Russia took advantage of the desperate state of Turkey to force upon the Sultan the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833), which closed the Black Sea to the vessels of war of all nations save Russia. In 1839 Mahmud 11. made war upon „Mehemet Ali. The Turkish army was utterly defeated by Ibrahim Pasha at Xisib (.June 21, 1839), and soon after the Turkish fleet was treacherously delivered up to the Egyptians. Only the intervention of the Quadruple Alliance (q.v.) in 1840 prevented the downfall of the Turkish power. Mehemet Ali was forced to re linquish Syria and other territories; he was recognized as hereditary, though tributary, ruler of Egypt. Soon after the beginning of this war Mahmud II. died (July 1, 1839). His son, Abdul-Medjid (1S39-61), continued the reforms commenced in the preceding reign. Russia's truculent attitude brought on a war with Turkey in 1853, in which that country would have suf fered severely but for the effective intervention in 1854 of England and France, soon joined by Sardinia, all bent on bumbling Russia. The allies of the Sultan made the Crimea the scene of their land operations, and in 1855 Sebastopol fell. (See CRIMEAN WAR. ) The Treaty of Paris (1856) restored to Turkey the command of both sides of the Lower Danube, excluded the Czar from his assumed protectorate over the Danu bian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia), and closed the Black Sea against all ships of war. Wallachia and Moldavia secured almost complete independence and were soon united into the Prin cipality of Rumania. The Porte, adopted into the family of European nations, made a procla mation of equal civil rights to all races and creeds in the Turkish dominions. A massacre of Christians in the Lebanon and at Damascus (see DnusEs) provoked Western intervention in 1860. Abdul-Medjid was succeeded by his brother Abdul-Aziz (1S61-76).
The Treaty of Paris in 1856 was supposed to have settled the Eastern question (q.v.) by guaran teeing Turkey's integrity, but Russia was merely awaiting an opportunity to press its old policy, and in 1871 the Russian Government seized the opportunity of war between Germany and France to declare that it felt itself no longer bound by that provision of the Paris treaty which forbade Russia to have a fleet in the Black Sea. A Lon don conference sanctioned this stroke of Russian diplomacy. An insurrection in Crete in 1866-68 was suppressed with difficulty. Between 1854
and 1871 the Turkish debt had increased by nearly $600,000,000; and in 1875 the Porte was driven to partial repudiation of its obligations. An insurrection which broke out in Herzegovina iu 1875 served to stir up all the neighboring Slavic peoples and was encouraged by Russian emissaries. In May, 1876, frightful massacres of Christians in Bulgaria took place. At the close of that month Abdnl-Aziz was deposed and soon after was found dead. His nephew, Amurath or Murad V., son of Abdul Medjid, reigned only three months, when he was deposed as an imbecile, and his brother, Abdul Hamid II., succeeded to the throne. In July, 1876, Servia and Montenegro declared war against the Porte. Before the end of the year the Servians were utterly defeated, in spite of the help of many Russian volunteers. The state of affairs in the Turkish provinces seemed to call for a conference of the Great Powers at Con stantinople. The proposals then made for the better government of the Christian subjects of Turkey were rejected by the Grand Council of the Turkish Empire. Simultaneously, however, with the assembly of the conference the Turkish Gov ernment had taken the extraordinary step of bestowing a parliamentary constitution on the Ottoman Empire. The Parliament assembled in March, 1877, but this ostensible remodeling of the political fabric of the Empire did not get beyond its incipiency. Russia took it upon her self to enforce on Turkey the demands made by the Powers, and on April 24, 1877, declared war. (See Russo-11:11E1:AI WAR.) The Turks made a brave stand, but at last succumbed, and at the close of January, 1878, the Russians were al most before the walls of Constantinople. The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on March 3d, but the European Powers intervened and re adjusted the whole Eastern question at the Congress of Berlin, Russia being forced to con tent herself with a much less radical disruption of the Turkish Empire in Europe than she had sought to bring about. See BERLIN, CONGRESS OF.
For a few years under the settlement effected at Berlin. there was comparative quiet in the Ottoman dominions, although in 1583. in con sequence of disturbances in Egypt, and the bad condition of the finances in that province, Great Britain established a control there which prac tically nullified what little was left of the Otto man sovereignty. Following on a revolutionary movement at Philippopolis in September, 1885, the Prince of Bulgaria proclaimed the annexa tion of Eastern Rumelia, and after a decade the Porte was compelled to recognize the change which thus deprived it of its fairest province. In 1895-96 there were massacres of tens of thousands of Armenian Christians, which were connived at by the local officials of the Ottoman Government. The protests of Europe were of no avail, because Abdul-Hamid knew well how to play off the Powers against one another so as to prevent interference of an effective kind. A rising of the Christians against the Mohammedans in Crete (q.v.) followed in 1896, and was the signal for the outbreak of long-repressed hos tilities in Greece. which recklessly entered upon war with Turkey in April, 1897. The campaign of a few weeks showed the utter futility of the Greek preparations. (See GREECE.) Greece was forced to sue for peace, the terms of which pro vided for the payment to the Ottoman Govern ment of an indemnity of $1S,000,000, and the rectification of the Greco-Turkish frontier in favor of Turkey. Meanwhile Crete was taken in charge by Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, and a settlement was finally made in 1898 by which the suzerainty of Turkey was renewed, but the island was given an autonomous gov ernment for three years. its executive head being Prince George of Greece, as high commissioner of the four Powers. This settlement was renewed indefinitely upon its expiration in December, 1901. (See CRETE.) The peoples of ancient Macedonia have long been restive under Turkish control, and in 1903 there were bloody conflicts and massacres over a large territory. The rivalry of Bulgaria and Greece and the influence of the Great Powers have made a successful revolt diffi cult.