(B) VERSIONS IN MODERN LANGUAGES. With the development of the different nationalities and languages of modern Europe, versions of the Bible in the vernacular became a necessity. The history of these different versions, in most eases, exhibits the same general features. In each country, one nr two out of a number of independent translations became most commonly used, and, either formally or informally, adopted by the national Church. Successive revisions of these national versions have been made necessary by the progressive changes in the vernacular and by the constant improvement in biblical scholar ship. Furthermore, in nearly all European lan guages, independent versions. of various grades of accuracy and popularity, have been frequently published. The following account does not regis ter all the very numerous versions that have been made. It attempts to indicate merely the main points in each national version, with only inci dental reference to the most important of the many independent private translations.
English l'ersiona.—The translation of the Scriptures into the Anglo-Saxon tongue began as early as the Eighth Century. Cashnon put parts of the Scripture narrative into verse. Bede (d.c.735) translated the Gospel of -John. Aldhelm and others made metrical versions of the Psalms. In King Alfred's time. other por tions, as the Commandments and the Psalter, were translated. .-Elfric (c.1000) translated parts of both Testaments. There was. however, previous to the Norman Conquest, no complete and gem-rally used Anglo-Saxon Bible. After the Conquest (1066), under the influence of the Normans, the old Anglo-Saxon became English. During the Thirteenth Century, a revival of relig ions interest in England led to a number of at tempts to translate the Latin Bible into the com mon tongue. Orin, an Augustinian monk, wrote the Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase of the Gos pels and Acts. Others treated Genesis and Exo dus in the same way. Later, by William of Shoreham (c.1320), Richard Rolle. and others, prose versions of the Psalter were made. But these efforts (lid not produce an English Bible. Down to 1360, only the Psalter had been trans lated. Twenty-five years later, the whole Bible was circulating in a popular English version that common people could easily understand. This great achievement was mainly due to John Wic lif (d.1384). With his fellow-workers. Nicholas of Hereford and John Purvey, Wielif eompleted the entire Bible by 1382. The New-Testament part was probably Wielif's own work. In 1388 the whole was revised by Purvey and made pub lic. The work was, of course, based on the Vul gate. Its avowed purpose was that 'pore men' might be able to read the truth. It was wel comed by such, and its effect on the religious life of England was profound. Yet it did not become a national version. Its popularity led to at tempts to suppress it, and besides the language was changing so rapidly that many words soon became obsolete. But the seed had been sown, and in due time the Reformation was in progress in England. The adherents of the Reformation keenly felt the need of a translation. especially of the New Testament, in the English of the day. But, though printing was invented in 1450, it was not until 1523 that nny part of the English Bible was put into type, and this was done on the Continent. In this respect England was far be hind Germany and other countries. The printed English Bible began its history with the New Testament of William Tyndale. His evangelical views compelled him to flee from England to the Continent. and during 1524 and 1523 he was at Wittenberg, Cologne, and Worms. His New Testament was published at Worms, 1525-26, after an unsuccessful attempt to bring it out at Cologne. Copies of the edition at once began to find their way into England. Their sale was prohibited by Parliament. Tyndale published a corrected edition in 1334. Before his death, in 1536. five or More reprints had been issued by Antwerp publishers, some of which were quite inaccurate. This large circulation shows how ineffectual was Parliament's prohibition. In 1530 Tyndale published. probably at Witten berg, a translation of the Pentateuch. He also translated the historical books from -Joshua to 11. Chronicles. but did not. live to publish them.
translations were made from the Hebrew and Greek originals. He was very careful in his choice of English words, and the value of his ver sion is mainly due to the fact that its English was the English of the people, not Anglicized Latin. It was also truthful, impartial. and fear less. Because of its intrinsic excellence it became a standard or model text by which all subsequent English versions, as well as the English language. have been most profoundly influenced. This ver sion, especially because of its annotations, was heartily disliked by the King and many of the clergy. But something had to be done to meet the demand for an English Bible. 31iles Cover dale (1488-1568), a clergyman of character and ability, at the suggestion of friends in high sta tion, undertook a new translation. Ile began his task in November, 1534, finished the translation in October, 1535. and in the same year published the tirst complete English Bible, including the Apocrypha. It was dedicated to Henry VIII. Coverdale evidently borrowed largely from the labors of others. His New Testament was little more than a superficially revised Tyndale. In the Old Testament he depended largely on Tyn dale and on Luther's German translation. The work was printed on the Continent, but published in England. Succeeding editions in 1537• 1539, 1550, aml 1553 showed much care in revision. In 1536, through the King's indirect. permission, the way was opened for the wider circulation of Coverdale's and other versions, Tyndale's alone being strictly proscribed. In 1537 a large folio Bible, bearing the name of Thomas Matthew as translator, appeared, dedicated to the King. It was, in reality, but a reprint, slightly changed, of Tyndale and Coverdale. In this Bible, Tyn dale's translation of the Old-Testament books from Joshua to II. Chronicles appeared in print for the first time. The whole was, doubtless, the work of John Rogers, Tyndale's friend and literary executor. The printers, Grafton and Whitechurch, cleverly succeeded in obtaining the royal license, with its exclusive privileges for their publication. "Matthew's" Bible thus be came, practically, the first authorized English Bible. In 1539 a revision of this Bible was prepared by Richard Taverner and published, the first complete Bible ever printed in England. Meanwhile, Thomas Cromwell was planning the publication of a Bible that might be formally au thorized, and at the same time acceptable to all the clergy. Coverdale was one of several em ployed by him to prosecute the work. The sheets were first printed in Paris. These were, however, seized and in part destroyed by the Inquisition. The presses, type, and other material wore then removed to England, where the work was pub lished in 1539. Copies of this Bible, which was called the 'Great' Bible on account of its size, were ordered to he placed in the parish churches. that any who desired might read. I'ntil 1568 this Bible held the position of an authorized Ver sion. The Scripture passages of the English Prayer-books of 1549-52 were taken from it. Its Psalter is still in use in the English Church. During the last seven years. of Henry's reign, his influence and power were directed against any further efforts to popularize the Bible. With the accession of Edward VI. (1547), the proscribed editions began to be reprinted and freely eircu• lated. It is estimated that 75,000 copies of the Scriptures wire printed during Edward's reign. Then came the reaction tinder (1553-58), when the Scriptures were again proscribed and the leaders of the Ileformation were persecuted. martyred, or compelled to flee to the Continent. Mary of the refugees settled at Geneva, where they published an English NewTestament in 1557, and the whole Bible in 1560. These were handy editions. in plain type, with chapters divided into verses and a marginal commentary. This Geneva Bible soon eclipsed all others in popularity. In 1568, under the leadership of Archbishop Parker, the 'Bishop's Bible? the joint labor of eight Eng lish bishops. was published. Though it thus be cattle the authorized version, it was too expensive to be popular.