An entirely distinct line of development had been meanwhile in progress in Italy, where it was not necessary, as in the north, to start from nothing. The feudal class established or en couraged by the Carlovingians could usually for tify themselves in ancient ruins of great strength, and they had before them Roman and Byzantine models which they carefully imitated. The Tenth Century saw• the founding of many feudal houses; and the great monasteries such as Farfa, Subiaco, and Cassino, in the fortresses by which they defended their possessions, furnished models to the barons. The Roman nobles were among the earliest to develop a type of castle; families like the Creseentii and Pierleoni, and later the Vico. Orsini. Colonna, etc., erected strongholds throughout the Roman province that far surpassed in size and magnificence any of the Norman or Blemish castles, and were equaled only by the French and English castles of the Thirteenth Century. Such were Borghetto and Alarozza. The dark, narrow, and unlivable Norman keeps would have seemed insufficient to families that held as their city fortresses such great antique buildings as the Colosseum, the Theatre of Mareellus. the Alansolentn of Augustus or of Iladrian, and the Circus Hand nius. Unfortunately. nobody has ever studied this phase of Roman a•ehitecture, In most other parts of Italy the establishment of the free oommunes led to the destruction of such castles during the Twelfth and Thirteenth centuries, as dangerous to the liberties of the people, and the nobles were forced to come to the cities to live, abandoning their mountain strongholds. This was the case first in the North and then in Tus cany. Only when the age of tyrants in. in the Fourteenth Century, with the Scalas, Vis eontis. Sforzas, Castracanis. did a new era of feudal castles begin in the north. Still, in the extreme north—in Piedmont. Savoy. and Upper Lombardy—there had been great feudal strong holds from the Tenth Century as at Bard and Challant. The famous castle of Canossa where the Emperor Henry IV. made his submission to Gregory VII. was one of these. Frederic 11., largely through the Arab engineers lie em ployed, introdneed the advanced Oriental metlnids before 1•50. His castles at Lucent, Barletta, Castel del :Monte, and elsewhere were worthy, in size and magnifieence., of their northern con temporaries. Ills french suceessors. the 1101ISe of Anjou, added other features from beyond the Alps, and the south of Italy then saw the greatest development of military architecture in the penin sula (Thirteenth and Fourteenth centuries). Far ther north the new style was exemplified in such structures as the castle of Castraeane at Avenza (1322) In Germany the architecture of the castle had remained (hiring all this time in its infancy. It had retained the earthwork system up to the Twelfth Centu.ry and even the Thirteenth Cen tury. as at Alt-Sternberg in Westphalia and the Prussian castles of the Knights of the Cross. In the Twelfth Century. stonework was intro duced in the more advanced regions. We ad mire the picturesque ruins of the castles along the Rhine. such as the Drachenfels, Oekenfels, Ehrenbreitstein, Lahneck, Rheinfels, and many more. They did not. embody any of the im provements we have noticed. Even as late as the Thirteenth Centnry the German castles were On provided with any flanking defenses for their outer fortifications and they kept to the anti quated type of square donjon. rectilinear outer line of walls—in short, the simply passive sys tem of the Eleventh Century—relying on the natural rocky situation. They were small. pirat ical eyries, never once entering the same class as Chateau Gaillard. or even Argues. Still. the elaborate network of these forts, their group ing to protect the whole Rhine valley, its cities and towns. make them interesting as a social and political. if not as an engineering study. Even socially, however, they did not show the conces sions to comfort and magnificence in feudal life that we find in France. although it is stated that over 350 feudal castles were erected under the HohensLiufens. Typical examples are the two castles at Riidesheim. with three superposed ter races but without wall-towers nr advanced works —with a typical mota in stone—a mere trans formation of the old earthworks. At Egisheim the keep or mole is a regular octagon inscribed in the centre of a larger regular octagonal wall eirenit—symmetrieal, but absurdly inadequate in view of the advance: made in contemporary modes of attack. A fuller development of this seheme is at Steinsberg (Twelfth Century) with triple concentric lines of walls. There are, however. some interesting exceptions. Salzburg. near Nenstadt (F.leventh and Twelfth centuries). bears certain resemblances to Arques, with its ditch cut along the crest of the hill, its two outer baileys and an inner one with a small keep; the wall-towers, however, are square. Interesting, historically, is thy, famous Wartburg Castle ( Eleventh and Twelfth centuries), of the Land grave: of Thuringia, with its double bailey and its attempt to unite the great palatial residence with the fortress, a form in which the Germans anticipated the French of the Thirteenth Century. Here the palate hall was a long structure in the inner bailey quite distinct from the keep. The Frankenburg Castle in Alsace (Eleventh to Thirteenth Century) is interesting for its two keeps—one of the primitive rectangular type, the other later and circular. At Landeck, near Klingemniinster (Twelfth and Thirteenth centu ries), we see not only the peculiar German scheme of superposed retreating platforms or baileys, hut the unusual presence—for Germany—of square and round towers in the outer circuit. These and others are in Alsace and the Bavarian Palatinate. The castle at Mfinzenberg shows how in many cases of an extremely oblong plan there were two keeps in place of one, because as it became necessary to have a keep near the edge of the defenses, and often at the most vulnerable end, a second centre was required for the other end. Among the castles which, in the course of the advance made during the Twelfth and Thirteenth centuries, showed how even Germans' had disearded all reminiscences of the Romano-Germanic mota or central earth mound, is Fleckenstein in Alsace. Trifels and Neusehartfeneek further develop the combination of fortress with palatial halls, which was charac teristic of the Wartburg. and no longer sacrifice the architectural beauty of their buildings to safety. The castle of Nuremberg is a superb example of a feudal structure commanding a great city ( Twelfth Cent ury) . Its narrow, rocky setting gives it not only a strong walled advanced work toward the town and a double encircling wall, but three successive baileys on ascending levels, divided by deep ditches, heavy walls, and towered entrance-gates. Like so many other German castles. the palace takes the place of the keep in the inner bailey. This tendency reaches its climax in such extensive castles as that of Friesach, in the Thirteenth Century, where the main palace is in the form of a quad rangle in the centre of a long and fairly forti fied enceinte and double outlying baileys and a. central keep adjoining the palace. But far sur passing all private and even all royal castles in Germany is the central fortress of the Teutonic knights, Schloss Ira rienburg.. whence they ex
tended their political power and the Christian religion over North Germany. and even flung down the gauntlet to Poland. It represents the highest efforts of German Gothic in the military field, surpassing in mere beauty its prototypes in Palestine. of which we shall speak. Its great chapel, knights' hall, refectory, and other struc tures of the inner bailey. superbly grouped. are works of art both without and within, the brunt of military defense being borne by the outer lines of fortification. In the South, the castle of Karl stein (1347) in Bohemia is probably the most magnificent.
Spain was undoubtedly the last of Western eountries to abandon the purely military castle; this was due to the long omfliet between the Christians and the :Moors, lasting to the very close of the Fifteenth Century. The Alhambra, at Granada, shows how the Moors ended by combining art and military science. and the Immense piles at Coca and ()lite show the per manence of the purely military architecture anumg the Spaniards. Feudalism of a certain kind had flourished in the Alohammedan East After the breaking up of the Caliphates of 1:ag dad and Cordova had led to a stage of smaller independent principalities. The castle-fortress had been developed by the Byzantines of the time of Justinian to a high degree of strength and seientific value. and they had inherited the old Oriental knowledge of double and triple lines of fortification and an overlooking acropolis, the specialty of the Hittite and Pelasgie peoples. The Arabs had borrowed from the Romans and Byzantines the idea of a frontier line of de fense. but they outdid them in their scientific treatment and situation. The military despotism of both empires gave, during the Tenth and Eleventh centuries, great power to the local chiefs on the frontier, who became not merely stationary magnates, but established real feudal dynasties. Syria and Asia Minor are full of these frontier castles, whose •astellans held the safety of the two empires in their hands. The studies of Rey (Architect ore ta ire de la Syric) have shown how superb were the forti fications erected in Syria by the Crusaders in the early Twelfth Century; those of M. Bourgoin have proved that Mohammedan castles furnished the models for the works of the Crusaders. 'While the Normans were putting up rudimentary earthworks. the chiefs of Syria were living in castles built of cut stone. This explains why the warriors returning from the first Crusades short ly after 1100 revolutionized the science of mili tary architecture in the north of Europe, and why for the origin of the great French and Eng lish castles of the Thirteenth Century we must go, as for so many other things, to the East. In tact. for the origin of the medheval forms then adopted we must study the fortifications of Dara, Edessa, Antioch, and other places in Syria and .1Iesopotamia, built by .Tustillian and his suc cessors.
The earliest of the remaining Crusaders' castles is supposed to be that of Giblet, a square plan With angle towers and a central square keep, and others like it at Blanehe-Ca•de and lbelin. A more advanced system is shown at Saona (e.1150), which is an example of the Syrian castles here planned to contain large garrisons. Its square Norman keep is supplemented by four bastions. Still further progress was made at Beaufort with two en•eintes, two keeps, and sonic heavy hastions. These are followed at the close of the Twelfth Century by a different class of oastles, those of the ord(q.s of ChristianKnights that were the strongest defenders of the Holy Land. The knights Templars had their central at Tortosa (1183) on a rocky pro jection in the sea by the city and surrounded on its elliptical land side by a wide double moat cut in the rock into which the sea could be turned, emitting otr the fortress altogether. The t WO lines of defense separated by the moat, were independent and both defended by square towers. The great keep on the farther side is also isolated by water. Although Tortosa is unsurpassed among Syrian fortresses in perfection of construction and is equal to the greatest in En rope, the castle of the of the rival order of Saint John built on the Orontes, and commanding the road between limns-Ham:di and Tripoli-Tortosa, is the most important of all, and still remains sub stantially perfect. It stands in the same class as Chnteau Gaillard, which it surpasses in size, is more advanced in scientific construction than Tortosa, and could easily hold a garrison of -ION men. It should be compared with the great contemporary city castle of Carcassonne in France. It was S p hied With t WO large barbi cans, with Si111:1 re 1111(1 round towers, and is built with a high terraced inner bailey magnificently defended and commanded by a barbican-keep. A fortified inclined winding esplanade connects it with the lower outer bailey. Architecturally these castles of the knights afforded great op portunities. It was necessary to provide im mense halls for the reunion of so large a mass of me —amounting often to a stimll army—men of equal rank, not underlings, as in the ordinary castle garrison. These edifiees were military mon asteries, and had halls. corresponding to the monastic churches, ehapter-houses, and refecto ries. Such castles presented altogether new prob lems to military architects, who fur the first time worked out schemes for uniting, outward strength with extensive interior halls. The result undoubt «Ily made possible the Valois-Plantagenet type in the West. Ilere, as in every other element of the castle, the type was S created in the East.
In the Fifteenth Century the castle ceased to be primarily a stronghold. and became a place of residence. In such buildings as the chateau at Saint Germain near Paris, the transition to the palace is shown; the old forms were often retained, but they were meaningless. Gaillon, Blois, Fontainebleau, Chambord in France, Cap rarola in Italy. Nettley hall. Tiehtield !louse and Longford Castle in England, the Albrecht, burg at Meissen in Germany, illustrate the new style and the passing of the old.
RinuomtArity. Very few hooks treat ade quately of this subject For France, consult the articles "Clinteau," "Donjon," "Siege," and "Tour," in Viollet-le-Due, Di•/ ionnn ire raisonm' de l'a reit i feet ure f ra 11 ca ise du X le all (10 vols., Paris, 1858418 For Germany. a partial exposition is found in Cori, Buu Einrichtung der den t schen Burg int. .1/it /Chafer (1,111Z, S95) ; NOCIler, dentSrhe Burg 1885 ) ; Essen \vein, Die frirgsbankmist (Da•mstadt, 1892) ; id., Burgenkunde (Munich, 1895) ; Salvisberg, Di• deutsche Icriegsu rehitek fur (Stuttgart, 1887). For castles of the cru sades, consult Rey, E I MIC sag' ICS 11101111111Cni do Wet mum to ire des croim's ell '-JJrie (Paris, 1871), and for Eughind and Scotland, AlcGibbon and !toss, CnstcUntrd and Domestic rchitect It re Of Scot land f eon, the Twel fth to the Eigh teen t h 0•nt 'try (Edinburgh, 1887-92) ; Clark, I/cc/kern/ .1/i/itnry Architecture (London, 1884 ) ; and Britton, .1 rchil ret on fool dntiquitie.s, Vol. 111. ( London, 1842).