TE('TURE.) The prineipal groups of such monu ments are in Normandy and England; in north e•n France; along the Rhine: in northern Italy and the Roman province: and in a large part of the East, in a series belonging both to the Byzantine and :Mohammedan Middle Ages.
Castles differ from forts in being primarily the permanent residence of a feudal Ion] his family and dependents, instead of merely a stronghold occupied by a garrison. They may be divided into two classes: eastles built for the defense of cities and subordinate to them—as at Carcassonne: and castles either entirely indepen dent or connected with towns of little importance which often grew up around them. The class of independent castles is the most numerous and most characteristic of the times: it is, in fact, the great outward sign of feudalism. They will, therefore, be here treated almost exclusively.
Castle architecture ran its course from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century, and is repre sentative of a large part of the life of the t hues. In the Orient it may be studied in three princi pal elasses—Byzantine castles. Mohammedan castles, casties of the Crusaders. In the \Vest its natural divisions are rather chronological pre-Norman. Norman, Crusading, Feudal, and Palatial Chateau periods. As a (-lass, castles are even more important for what they represent than for what they are. In the form with which we are most familiar they are the creation of the nations of the North, under early influences, typifying at first the stern, self-reliant individu alism of feudal society, its absorption in one idea, self-sacrifice and isolation, and the foster ing of strong nwn, In studying its history we can trace the gradual softening of these ideals until the self-indulgent life of the Renaissance chateau is finally reached. But the Border Wars of scotland, the fends of Richard Cteur de Lion and Philip Augustus. the Barons and Magna Charta, and such events and atmospheres are not the only kind illustrated. The border wars of the Byzantine emperors and the Mohammedan emirs, the struggles of the Knights Templars and those of Saint John. the vicissitudes of the Old Man of the Alountain and his Assassins, also in their history crystallize around great castles in the East.
A word of explanation as to their origin. in the north of Europe. where wood prevailed in place of stone, the old Roman castella or detached military posts were often at first used, reinforced by palisades and wooden towers. The Frankish fortified villa was a quadrangle like a Roman ramp, surrounded by ditch and palisade and having a mound in its centre as :t final place of defense, surrounded by a trench and topped by a circular or polygonal wooden (haiku' or keep from to to 30 meters in diameter and 3 to 13 meters high. This was the pre -Norman castle of the north (e.g. at Sainte-Eulalie d'Ambares and at •reidberg). Sometimes the circular form was preferred fur the outer works, as in the Pipin Burg near Lehr (Germany). Such works have of course left few traces, c xeept of the roughest ground plan of their earthworks. When the Normans settled down in the north of France in the Tenth Century, they began to build castles of a new type: their keeps, instead of being in the centre of a rectangular inelosure, were at one of its edges, .o that direct communication with the outer country could still be had in ease the (alter palisades were captured. The materials re mained at first the same—earthworks with pali sades and a bank; then an earthen moth- or mound, and wooden towers at the highest point. It was with such castles that the Norman chiefs repelled the Hungarian hordes during the Tenth Century and kept the river courses open for t heir raids. They took advantage. of the natural strength of localities better than the Franks, Who, like the Romans. had built usually on the plain. The Norman castle, in France and England even for a generation after the Conquest were of this kind: for example, at Builth in South Wales. Longtown. and Kilpeek in Here fordshire. The first advance was made late in the Eleventh Century, by building the keep or donjon of instead of earth, and immeasurably increasing its importance in rela tion to the outer line of earthworks. The keep at, Mailing in Kent, and Londou's famous keep, the White Tower. are survivals of this stage, which lasted, for the majority of castles, well into the Twelfth Century. England was covered with them: they were the principal means of firmly establishing the Norman yoke. Thirty went up under William the Conqueror; many more his sons, and under Stephen (1135-51) 111:i were built. Meanwhile a great innovation had begun, a- usual not in England, but on the Conti nent. Earthworks were discarded altogether and a complex system of stone-wall defenses was connected with the stone keep. It is at Argues, in Normandy. that William, uncle of Duke Wil liam, erected on a strong rocky promontory an epoch-making castle, with a square donjon at the upper end and with the entrance at the lower end protected by a double gate, two flanking round towers, and advanced earthworks. The in terior had two courts or bailies—lower and up per—,eparated by a palisade. The circuit of walls was defended by eleven towers—all but two round. The donjon was against the outer The natural rise toward the castle was defended by a palisade in front of a bailie, in its primitive sense—back of which a wide fosse was cut in the soft rock from the scarp of which rose the castle walls. Along this scarp, subterranean corridors were cut to detect and oppose mining approaches, and the whole sub-structure was honeycombed with subter ranean passages for sallies and intercommunica tion between the various parts. But Argues re mained for a century a great exception in the importance Of its outer circuit. A, suun as the improved methods reached England many eastles were rebuilt, such as "Dover and in Kent, Newcastle in Northumberland, Appleby and Carlisle in Cumberland, Brougham in West moreland, Richmond and Coni.buruugh in York
shire. Portehester in Hampshire. Guildford in Surrey, Goodrich in Herefordshire. Norwich and Castle Rising in Norfolk, liedingliam and Col chester in Essex." (Parker.) They Vary but slightly in plan, the keep being a massive square tower, with a square turret projecting from each angle. The entrance was quite high up. by a tellIporary wooden staircase, removed in time of danger. The interior was often divided by a vertical wall into two equal sections without communication except through passages cut in the upper part of this heavy division-wall. The stories were divided by wooden floors; very sel dran by vaults. These keeps were small. dark, and uncomfortable, and until the later period when the outer defenses were strengthened, they not infrequently succumbed to famine after the outer works were carried. They- were, however, uncomfortable as residences. This type, which has been described as "a strong post arounil which a fortified camp was traced." was followed in Nor mandy itself, at Chambois. Ealaise, Nogent-le Rotron. and Le Pin; also in the French prov inces under Norman influence, as at Chauvigny, Loehes. Pouzanges. Mont richard. Mont bazon, Peaugency. etc. Often the keeps of such castles were supplemented during the Twelfth and Thir teenth centuries, or even later, by stronger outer lines of defense than was customary when they were first built. The outer walls had been really only for the protection of the outbuildings from marauders, not to withstand an attack in force. hitherto, even with these improvements, the cas tles of this type were incapable of offensive de fense and became thoroughly insecure. The Cru saders had brought experience in approaching and attacking fortifications and were familiar with advanced methods of sapping and ruining, with heavy machines and towers or belfries, through contact with the skilled engineers and their works among the Byzantines and :Mohammedans of the East. A revolution took place in the plans of European castles, especially in France, before the close of the Twelfth Century. It is connected, however, more with royal castles built for na tional purposes with all the resources of the hate, rather than with the private efforts of feudal nobles. This movement is individualized first at La Roeheguyon, built by Philip Augustus of France, and then, even more superbly. by its greater rival Chateau Gaillard, built by Richard Ctsur de Lion, which defended all Normandy against France. At Gaillard the Eastern methods of thinking constructions, by which an aggres sive defense could be made, was first carried out: the type of square donjon. which enforced ignorance of exterior operations and was weak for defense at the angles, was abandoned for the circular form; in fact, curved lines were every where employed. Another important innovation was the double concentric line of defense of the main castle, beside the keep. This central fort had a strong, irregularly triangular fort separated from it by a trench. and With its nose toward the narrow strip of land that was the only vulnerable point of approach. The river Seim•, that flowed by its base, and by a short curve there formed a promontory, was fortified in various ways—by a fort on an island defending, a bridge with a barbican at one end and a large fortified burg at the other, with another farther on, all near the water-level, while above it a triple stockade barred the river. The whole system was, perhaps, the most per fectly devised of the feudal age; in it everything was sacrificed to It was by such works that the quality of masonry was per fected. Of the French donjons, or keeps, the most important of this period, now preserved, is tleit of Loehes, still over 30 meters high. A little later was built (1223-30) the famous castle of Couey, the most wonderful of inedimval private fortresses, and exhibiting for the first time the tendency to unite artistic magnificence and comfort with perfect military strength. The new principles of Got hie architecture, with its mastery of vaulted construction, alone made this possible. The chapels, halls of the knights, and halls of the feudal lords became structures of great size and high finish. Such were the old Louvre of Philip Augustus, the chateaux of lisson and of Angers, and other royal castles of the Thirteenth Century. Under Oriental in fluence the old wooden balconies or hurdles (hou/Ws) had long been replaced by stone vaulted projections. galleries, and hartizans ( mach icaulis, echanyet les), thus doing away with the main defensive weakness of earlier castles. During this period the normal form and division of the most numerous class of castle, the No•man English, was the following: A ditch, dike. fosse, or moat, surrounding the circuit, crossed by a bridge defended by a barbican and closed by a portcullis; then the enter wall or curtain, 20 to 25 feet high, with its towers and bastions, its terraced walk with single or double parapet; then the gate-house flanked with towers, leading into the outer bailey court with buildings for feeding, organizing. and lodging the garrison; then a second and higher inner line of defense with its fosse and gate-house, within which is a second or inner bailey, at the end of which is the keep containing hall, chapel, and accommoda tions for the suzerain or lord. Under the Planta genets a small mound, called ra caller, was often added. At this time in England, and under the Valois in Fro nee. a great ehange in arrangement took place. characteristic of the increasing, lux ury of the Fourteenth Century-. The inner court or bailey, instead of being merely a part of the defensive system culminating in the keep. be came a centre of architectural splendor which now showed itself for the first time on the ex terior. This culminated in such famous royal structures as Pierrefonds and La Eerti-Milon in France. and in such private castles as that of Prominent English castles were Rochester, Windsor. and Alnwick.