Possibly the most important contributions of Catholic scholars in the eighteenth century were made by Charles Francois Houbigant (died 1783), whose Lati'n translation was made for the first time throughout from a Hebrew text, amended by conjectural criticism (1753) ; Jean Astruc (died 1766), who in the same year pub lished his epoch-making conjectures as to the documents used by Moses in the composition of Genesis; Augustine Calvet (died 1757), who published the first Bible dictionary; and Alex ander Geddes (died 1802), who first embodied in a commentary (1792.97) the results of Pentaten chal documentary analysis. The intense study of natural science in England caused the critical inquiries of the Deists. After Herbert and Blount it was especially Anthony Collins (died 1729), the first in modern times to recognize that Daniel was written in the Maceabtran age, though Piscator perceived that the events of this time were referred to and John Toland (died 1722), whose labors advanced biblical science. On the other hand, the Quaker movement devel oped a conception of religious liberty and a reli ance upon subjective judgment fr(on which bibli cal interpretation ultimately derived great ben efit. For the appreciation of Hebrew poetry Robert Lowth's treatise upon the subject in 1753 was of utmost importance. The Bible edition of Benjamin Kennicolt (1776-80), together with its necessary G. B. de bee t ion eR (17 4 -8S ) , made it evident that all extant manuscripts represent substantially the text recension. The still indispensable edition of the Greek Bible by Tlohnes and Parsons (179S 1827 I was also begun in this century. .1. Cleri ens ( le Clerc, died 1731;) made the Continent ac quainted with the work of the English Deists, and enriched science with excellent commentaries. Hadrian Ryland (died 1718) and Albert Schnitens (died 1751) elucidated the text by their histor and philological investigations. Campegius Vitringa (died 1722) wrote a learned exposition of Isaiah, mid .1. G. Carpzuv (died 17(17) au ex cellent introduction to the Old Testament. Akin to the Deists, but more learned. was Hermann Samuel Reimarus (died 1768), whose Wolfen h t F ra gm en e, published by Lessing in 1774, searchingly examined the Pentateuch. Voltaire (died 1778) drew from English thinkers many of the arguments with which he undermined tradi tional beliefs concerning the Bible. Meanwhile the Quaker leaven was spreading. Pietistic exe gesis was at first allegorizing, but gradually be came infected with rationalism. The transition may be seen in Zinzendorf (died 1760), Edel mann (died 1767), C. F. Bahrdt, (died 1792), and J. D. 'Michaelis (died 1791) ; but especially in Juliann Salomo Semler (died 1791), whose dis cussion of the Canon proved of great value, and ('orrodi (died 1793), whose studies of the chiliastic movements prepared him to under stand the Book of Daniel. J. G. Herder (died 1803) contributed greatly to an understanding of Canticles and other poetic parts of the Bible. In fluenced by the philosophy of Christian Wolff (died 1754), and that of Immanuel Kant (died 1804), a rationalistic school of biblical interpre tation was formed, among whose chief represen tatives 11. E. G. Paulus (died 1851 ), by his studies of prophecy and of the Book of Joshua; Karl David Ilgen, by his remarkable work on the documents in the Temple archives at Jeru salem (1798) ; and Paulus's disciple, Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, by his masterly introduction (1780-S3), particularly furthered biblical ex egesis.
The nineteenth century witnessed a marked progress in the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. Among the Catholic exegetes Johann Jahn (died 1816), J. G. Herbst (died 1836), Franz Kaulen, and J. Comely, by their introductions; Anton Scholtz, by his bold and thorough textual criticism: and Gustav Bickell, by his meritorious studies of Hebrew poetry, deserve special men tion, though many others made substantial contributions. But the leadership in biblical exegesis was maintained by Lutheran theologians in Germany. It was largely, if not wholly, due to their influence that competent and independent interpreters appeared in other European coun tries and in America in the latter part of the century. Hegel, Sehleiermaeher. and De Wette made a deep impression upon theological thought, and their disciples reached with a bound many critical positions to which a later generation has been forced back after a significant and valuable reaction. W. M. L. de Wette (died 1849) recog nized the mythical and legendary element in the Pentateuchal narratives, placed the date of the Deuteronomic law in the reign of Josiah, and dis cussed the character of the Chronicler's historiog raphy. He became the chief representative of the fragmentary hypothesis of Geddes, introduced into Germany by Johann Severin Water in 1802, though the possibility of a more extended docu ment supplemented by later hands, which was presented by Stiihelin, Bleek. and Ewald, subse
quently attracted him. His pupils. C. P.W. Grain berg in 1829, Wilhelm Vatke and J. F. L. George in 1835, under the influence of fiegel's philosophy of history, traced the growth of customs and ideas, anticipating sonic important conclusions reached by later exegetes under the influence of the phi losophy of evolution. Bruno Bauer in 1838 dis cussed the true character of the Book of .fob an 1 advocated its post-exilic origin. The ripest exeget ical fruit of the rationalistic school was the com mentary on ;sahib published in 1821 by EMI horn's pupil, Wilhelm Gesenius (died 1842). That some of the critical positions were tempo rarily lost was not so much due to the vain at tempts of Ifengstenberg (died 1869), fliiverniek (died 1845), and Keil (died 1891) to rehabili tate traditional views, as to the natural sus picion of a construction of Israel's history, based on philosophical assumptions and to a truer ap preciation of the potency of personality as against impersonal force. Quite the most influential Old Testament exegete of the middle of the century was Heinrich Ewald (died 1875). His learning, insight, and independence admirably fitted him to interpret the prophets and poets of Israel, but his sense of the historic development was not so keen. Iiis most eminent disciple, August Dillinann (died 1894), in his learned and critical commentaries maintained some of Ewald's conservatism. Jus tus Olshansen, in his commentary on the Psalms (1853), first perceived clearly the essentially Maccabean background. Hermann Hupfeld (died 1866) in the same year brought Pentateu chal criticism back to the documentary hypothe sis by a masterly characterization of the sources of Genesis, and later wrote an excellent commen tary on the Psalms. The critical investigation of Jeremiah, begun by F. C. Movers in 1837, was carried on by Ferdinand Ilitzig (died 1875), who also elucidated the Psalms and the minor proph ets by his keen textual and literary criticism. The commentaries of August Knobel (died 1863) were marked by -erudition and originality. In 1866 Karl Heinrich Graf proved that the laws of the priestly code were post-exilic; and the char acter of this priestly document was searchingly examined by the distinguished Semitic scholar Theodor Nflldeke, in 1869. Of great importance was the series of contributions by Julius Well hausen to Pentateuchal criticism. begun in 1576, to which he has added a careful study of the text of Samuel (1871). and suggestive notes on the minor prophets (1892). The brilliancy of his style, the cogency of his reasoning, and the har mony of his conception of history with the doc trine of evolution have given a wide currency to his views. In ISS1 the Zeitschrift (air alttestamentliclae Wissenschaft was founded by Bern hard Stade. In it much valuable work. has ap peared—none more important than that of the editor himself, whose critical acumen not less than his historical insight may also be seen in his history of Israel (MSS). Another admirable historian, Eduard Meyer, has also enriched bib lical criticism by many a contribution. Adalbert Merx, in an exceedingly learned and valuable commentary on Joel in 1879. paved the way for an understanding of that book. Karl Budde, by his Biblische E'rpeschichte in 18S3 and his studies on Judges and Samuel, as well as by his important discovery of the Nina metre. has done good ser vice to biblical exegesis. Karl Siegfried by his painstaking studies in Hellenistic philosophy was admirably prepared for his thorough investiga tion of Ecclesiastes (1893). An exegete of marked originality and great ability is Bernhard Duhm, whose commentaries on Isaiah in 1892 and on the Psalms in 1699 have proved very help ful. Sympathetic insight and critical independ ence also mark the commentary on Genesis by Hermann Gunkel (1901). What is best in Bun sen's Bibelwerk comes from Adolf Kamphausen's hand. The contributions by Franz De]itzseh (died 1390) to the Keil-Delitzsch commentaries are particularly valuable for the author's pro found knowledge of rabbinic lore. August Klos termann's commentary on Samuel and Kings (18S7) exhibits a textual criticism as startlingly bold as the exegesis is conservative. Rudolf Sinend's commentary on Ezekiel (1880) is par ticularly important. The series of commentaries edited by Michael Wilhelm Nowack contains many good expositions, and that edited by Karl Marti contains, among others, good commentaries by the editor himself on Isaiah (1900) and Dan iel (1396). Karl Heinrich -Cornill, in his study of the text of Ezekiel (1886), showed himself an excellent textual critic. No contributions to textual criticism during the century were more significant than those of Paul de Lagarde (died 1891), whose marvelous native resources, phil ological and philosophical, were mainly devoted to the Greek version.