REACTION AND REVOLUTION (1815-52). The pur pose of the Congress of Vienna was to reestablish legitimate monarchic authority. To maintain this authority and to resist all revolutionary movements, an alliance was formed by the Em perors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia. (See HOLY ALLIANCE.) Of this alli ance and of the reactionary policy followed by the majority of the European governments till 1848 'Metternich (q.v.), the Austrian Alinister, was the directing spirit. Among the peoples of Europe, however, there was a natural desire for sonic share in government; and in Germany and Italy there was a strong desire for national unity. The attitude of the princes made it ap pear impossible that unity could be attained except through popular sovereignty. For this reason the nationalists in Germany and Italy became revolutionists and, to a large extent, republicans. Revolutionary agitation was main tained by secret assoeiaLions. (See EURSCHEN SCHAFT ; NAZZINI ; YOUNG ITALY.) The first popular outbreaks occurred in 1820 in Spain and in Naples. In each of these kingdoms the mon arch was forced to grant a liberal constitution. Acting under the authorization of European con gresses, Austria forcibly intervened in Naples and France in Spain; the objectionable constitu tions were withdrawn, and absolute royal govern ment was reestablished. The next purely political outbreak occurred in 1830 in France. Louis XVII1. had granted his people a constitution, and had reigned in peace. Charles X. attempted to subvert the constitution, and was deposed. (See JULY REVOLUTION.) Louis Philippe, of the House of Orleans, was made King, and a more liberal constitution was adopted. The French example stirred the Liberals to action in other parts of Europe. In Germany a few of the smaller king doms and principalities had already received representative constitutions; in 1830, in con sequence of popular demonstrations, nearly all the other minor States were constitutionalized. The governments of Prussia and of Austria, how ever, made no such concessions. In Belgium and in Poland insurrections occurred, which were national rather than political. The Belgians re volted against the Dutch rule and elected Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as their King; and France and England forced Holland to recognize Belgian in dependence (1831). Poland rebelled against its King, the Russian Czar; but this rebellion was crushed and Poland became a Russian province.
In 1848 Franee was again in revolution. (See FEBRUARY REVOLUTION.) Louis Philippe had resisted the demand for a wider suffrage and was deposed. A republic was established; a struggle followed between the socialistic and conservative elements; a socialistic rising in Paris was put down with much slaughter; Louis Napoleon was elected President. Three years later the Presi dent overthrew the Constitution, and in 1852 he assumed the title of Emperor. (See NAPOLEON III.) Both of these changes were approved by vote of the French people. In 1848, as in 1830. the dis turbances at Paris were followed by disturbances throughout central Europe. Popular uprisings at Berlin and Vienna forced the Prussian and Austrian rulers to grant constitutions. Here and everywhere else in Germany the revolutionary leaders also demanded national unity. All the German kings and princes bowed to the storm, and a parliament was assembled at Frankfort to draw up a constitution for a united Germany. Simultaneously the people of Schleswig-Holstein took arms against Denmark and demanded that these duchies should be incorporated in the new Germany; while the Bohemian, Hungarian, and Italian subjects of Austria rose against German rule. The Austrians were driven out of Lom bardy and Venice, and throughout the rest of Italy the people either expelled their princes or forced them to send troops to the aid of the insurgent Venetians and Lombards. The united Italian forces were placed under the command of the King of Sardinia. All these movements came to nothing. The Austrian Army restored order in Bohemia and at Vienna, and defeated the Italians. With the aid of Russia, the Hun garian insurrection also was crushed. All the Italian princes recovered their thrones; the l'ope, who had been expelled from Rome, was reinstated. by Napoleon. The Frankfort Parliament, after long deliberation, determined to organize all Germany except Austria as a federal empire, and offered the Kinn. of Prussia the Imperial crown. lie declined the offer and the German Parliament dispersed. A belated attempt of the King of Prussia to organize the 'narrower Ger many' on more conservative lines than those proposed at Frankfort also failed. The old con federation was and the people of Schleswig-Holstein were again made subject to the King of Denmark.