MODERN GERMAN. It is characteristic of the literary language of Modern German that it is based on the Midland German rather than on the Upper German dialects. The points in which it differs from the Middle High German 'Literary Swabian' are especially these: (1) the M. H. G. long vowels i, 12, ii (the latter spelled iu in M. H. G.) have been changed to the diph thongs ei, au, eu; e.g. M. H. G. min = M. Ger. mein, M. H. G. has = M. Ger. Haus, M. H. G. hiute = M. Ger. heute; (2) the M. H. G. diph thongs ie, uo, fee, have been changed to the long vowels, i (spelled ie), 12, Il; e.g. M. H. G. spiegel = M. Ger. Spiegel (i.e. spigel), M. H. G. muot = M. Ger. Mut, M. H. G. bekiieten = M. Ger. be hiiten; (3) the M. H. G. short vowels a, e, i, o, have been lengthened in stressed 'open' syllables (i.e., in stressed syllables ending in a conso nant) ; e.g. M.H.G. name = M. Ger. Name (pron. name), M. H. G. nemen = M. Ger. nehmen, M. II. G. gebliben = M. Ger. geblieben, M. H. G. oben M. Ger. oben (pron. oben), M. H. G. caber = M. Ger. fiber (pron. caber) ; (4) initial a has passed into g (spelled sch) before 1, m, n, to; e.g. M. H. G. slagen = M. Ger. schlagen, M. H. G. smerze =M. Ger. Schmerz, M. H. G. sniden= M. Ger. schneiden, M. H. G. swaere =M. Ger. sehwer ; (5) the difference in the strong preterit between the stem-vowel of the singular and that of the plural is generally discarded; e.g. M. H. G. ich bleip, wir bliben = M. Ger. ich blieb, wir blieben, M. H. G. ich half, wir hulfen = M. Ger. ich, half, wir halfen. There are in addition to these differences many others, but those men tioned stand first in importance.
In almost every case we are able to trace the origin and the spread of these changes in the Midland German dialects for a long time before they were incorporated in the literary language. Of special interest is the diphthongization of Middle High German i, el, 12, in that this was originally an Austro-Bavarian peculiarity, which spread from Bavaria and Austria over East Franconia, and from here over the neighboring Midland German districts.
The history of the Modern German written language may be traced back to the middle of the fourteenth century, when, under the Em peror Louis the Bavarian (1314-47), the Imperial Chancery adopted German instead of Latin in its official documents. There existed at this time in the different parts of Germany several Kanzlei sprachcn, or official languages. The mutual in tercourse between the various centres furnished the basis for greater uniformity, and it is only natural that the language of the Imperial Chan cery should have gained a predominating influ ence. The dialect adopted by the Imperial Chan
cery was essentially that of the Imperial Court, which at the time of the Luxemburg emperors (1347-1437) was stationed at Prague. It was accordingly a dialect whose consonantism was East Franconian, and in which the Middle High German long vowels i, a, ti had been replaced by the Austro-Bavarian diphthongs ci, au, cu. The adoption of this dialect by the Imperial Chancery led to its introduction, in the second half of the fifteenth century, into the chanceries of the neighboring principalities of Saxony and Thuringia. A further step was its adoption, be tween 1480 and 1500, by the Meissen and Saxon municipalities and courts and by the universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg. By 1500 it had be come, in Saxony and Thuringia, not only the generally accepted official language, but was also largely used in private correspondence and as the written language among the educated classes.
The popular belief which ascribes to Luther the foundation of the Modern German literary language is not well founded. When, in 1522, Luther published his translation of the New Testament, he simply made use of a written language which was by this time pretty firmly established. Luther's own words bear witness to this, for he says in his Table Talk (ch. lxix.) : "I have no particular language of my own in German, but use the common German language so that both High and Low Germans may under stand me. I follow the language of the Saxon Chancery, which all the princes and kings in Germany take as their model; all the free Im perial cities and all the courts of princes write according to the Chancery of the Saxons and of our prince. Hence it is the most common German language. Emperor Maximilian and the Elector Frederick, Duke of Saxony, have thus united into one fixed language the German lan guages of the Roman Empire." This much is true, that Luther's translation of the Bible, his catechisms, his hymns, and his numerous pamphlets were largely instrumental in spread ing this language from Midland Germany over the whole of the German Empire, and in over coming the obstacles which for a long time mili tated against its acceptance as the written and literary language of all Germany. The latter result was achieved in the course of the six teenth and seventeenth centuries, when first (between about 1550 and 1600) Northern Ger many, afterwards Southern Germany, and finally Switzerland joined the movement. It is hardly before about 1750 that the literary language can be said to have received its present form.