THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Greeks everywhere began to plan for a national revival, the chief agent being a great secret association, the Lletteria, which extended wherever in the world Greeks were to be found loyal to the national cause. The way for such a movement had been prepared by the labors of the patriot scholar Coray (q.v.), who had devoted himself to the task of restoring the classic language of ancient Hellas, with the conscious purpose of effecting thereby a resur rection also of the old national spirit. In March, 1821, at Jassy, the capital of Moldavia, Alexan der Ypsilanti, head of the Hetteria, raised the standard of revolt, proclaiming the independence of the Greek people, and the ten years' struggle was opened. Ypsilanti's daring deed soon ended in disaster, but it was the signal for a great uprising, which at once began in the Morea. The Porte sought to check the revolt by wholesale massacres and executions, but the rebellion grew in spite of constant defeat. The people revived the memories of the ancient Greeks by their heroic deeds, on land and sea, under the lead of such men as Germanos, Kolokotronis, Mavro michalis, Demetrius, Ypsilanti, Mavrokordatos, Bozzaris, Odysseus, Miaulis, and Kanaris. Tripo litza, in the Morea, the capital of that pashalic, was captured by the Greeks, October 17, 1821. At Epidaurus in January, 1822, the first Na tional Assembly framed a constitution. In March occurred the terrible massacres perpetrated by the Turks on the island of Scio (Chios), when about 25,000 people were slain within a month, and thousands more were sold into slavery. In spite of these atrocities, however, the members of the Holy Alliance, at the Congress of Verona in the last months of 1822, called upon the rebel lious Greeks to return to their obedience. Among the deeds of the patriots in the year 1822 was the destruction of the Admiral's ship of the Turks at Chios (night of June 18-19), and of another vessel of the line (in November) by the fire-ships of Kanaris, and the victories of Kolo tronis over the invading Turkish army in the Morea. In August, 1823, occurred the brilliant exploit of Marco Bozzaris (q.v.) at Karpenisi near Missolonghi. Funds to aid the patriots were obtainable only on exorbitant terms, but the generous contributions of wealthy Greeks and of sympathetic foreigners (see PHILIIELLENES ) maintained the long struggle against fearful odds. Among those who stirred up Europe in the cause of Greek independence was Byron. The Sultan at last called in Mehemet Ali (q.v.), who had already made a sinister reputation in Egypt, to suppress the rebellion. An Egyptian army of 17,000 men under Ibrahim Pasha landed in the Morea in February (1825). Navarino was taken in May, Tripolitza in June, and within half a year the entire peninsula had been subjugated. In April, 1826, the Turks took Missolonghi, after an heroic defense on the part of the Greeks, and on Au gust 15th Athens was taken by storm. The mis
fortunes of the Greeks during this period of the war were due in great measure to the dissensions between the Constitutional Party, headed by Mav rokordatos and Kunduriotis, and the supporters of a military dictatorship, of whom the most prominent were Kolokotronis and Ypsilanti. A temporary reconciliation between the two par ties was effected in 1827, and in March the National Assembly at Trcezen amended the Con stitution so as to provide for a single executive. Count Capo d'Istria (q.v.) was chosen Presi dent, and assumed the government at the beginning of 1828. Party quarrels, however, broke out again almost immediately. On June 5, 1827, the Greek garrison in the Acropolis of Athens, which had held out after the lower town was taken, capitu lated. The Greek cause seemed in a most deplor able condition; but the probable results of Turk ish success in strengthening the power of Mehemet All in Egypt stirred the European cabi nets at last to intervention. The London protocol of July 6, 1827, signed by England, France, and Russia, called for an armistice and intervention. The Porte, still supported by Austria, refusing to hear from the Powers on the subject, the allies strengthened their naval forces in the Mediter ranean. The defiant action of Ibrahim Pasha precipitated the desperate battle in the Bay of Navarino, October 20th, in which the combined Egyptian and Turkish fleet was practically de stroyed by a much lighter force. Soon after a French force landed in the Morea, and Ibrahim Pasha found himself compelled to withdraw his army. The onslaught made by Russia upon the Ottoman Empire in 1828-29 finally forced the Porte to accept a settlement proposed by the Powers. In the Treaty of Adrianople (q.v.) be tween Turkey and Russia, September 14, 1829, the Porte pledged its consent to whatever ar rangements the Powers might conclude in respect to Greece. The London Protocol of the Great Powers, in February, 1830, declared Greece an independent kingdom, and was accepted by the Porte. In that country meanwhile the cessation of war had been followed by a period of great unrest. Great dissatisfaction was felt with the course adopted by Capo d'Istria in neglecting to call the popular assembly, and in ruling after the manner of a dictator. Capo d'Istria was as sassinated October 9, 1831, in Nauplia, and Greece was for a short time ruled by a regency of seven men. On May 7, 1832, after long negotia tions with various foreign princes, Otho, the sec ond son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, was made King by the Powers, and landed in Greece early in the following year. The reorganization of the country was undertaken under a Bavarian regen cy, the King being only seventeen years of age. A loan of 60,000,000 francs was guaranteed by the Powers. King Otho came of age in 1835, and in the same year the seat of government was trans ferred from Nauplia to Athens.