TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION. Prior to the industrial revolution in Great Britain (see MANUFACTURES above), the inland transpor tation facilities were much inferior to those of other European countries. As early as 1423 the English Government began the improvement of the Thames River for purposes of navigation, and also the improvement of natural water courses. The construction of artificial water ways followed from time to time. The latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century formed a period of re markable development in canal construction, many parts of the country being covered with a network of canals, which played a leading role in that early period of industrial development. With the advent of railroads, the canals were superseded in a measure, and many of them now belong to the railroad companies. However, the ship canals in particular are of great importance, the largest and most famous of which, the Man chester Ship Canal, was only completed in its present form in 1894. This canal is miles in length, and has a minimum depth of 26 feet and a minimum width at the bottom of 120 feet, so that large ocean vessels are able to pass at any point. The Gloucester and Berkeley and the Exeter canals are also ship canals of some im portance; and the Thames, Severn, Aire, and Weaver rivers are canalized. Bearing this and the insularity of Great Britain in mind, its in land shipping facilities are remarkable. There are 142 miles of canals in Scotland and 2061 miles in England, and, in addition, in the latter country 693 miles of riverway have been improved for purposes of transportation by the erection of locks along their courses. Another method of meeting the demands of a growing industry upon transportation was the construction of toll turnpikes. At the opening of the nine teenth century Telford and MacAdam introduced their improved methods of road-making, the main point of difference in the two systems be ing that Telford's system required a firm stone foundation under the less substantial surface. while MacAdam considered a broken-stone sur face sufficient. From this time on. British roads have been of a high order of excellence. The care of all highways is in the hands of the rural district councils, and toll is no longer collected on any of the roads of Great Britain. Tram ways have from the beginning of the eighteenth century been used at the mines, and in the first years of the nineteenth century one was construct ed from Wandsworth to Croyden and Reigate, and shorter ones were completed in other parts of the country.
Finally, in 1825 a railway line that was ope rated by steam, 14 miles in length, was opened fur passenger traffic from Stockton to Darlington. Steam, however, had previously been used in the hauling of coal at the mines. The first important railway line in the world, that from Liverpool to Manchester, was opened in 1830. George Stephenson had charge of the construction on both these roads. The success of the new system of transportation being demonstrated, in a few years it spread into every part of England. The traffic at once was extensive, and almost all the lines were originally laid with two or more tracks. Though differing at first in gauge,, a universal gauge (1.435 meters) has been estab lished. The mileage for the United Kingdom in 1850 was 6620; in 1870, 15,540; and in 1900, 21,855 miles. Of the last amount, 15,187 miles were in England and Wales, and 3485 in Scot land. London is the great focal point for all the principal lines. The increase in the number of passengers conveyed is indicated in the following table: The enormous increase was largely confined to third-class passengers, which, for the United Kingdom, amounted in 1900 to 1,038,873,000. Since 1880 there has been an actual decrease in the number of first-class passengers, and only a small increase in the number of second-class passengers. Between 1880 and 1900 the freight tonnage for the United Kingdom increased over 80 per cent., the larger part of the increase being made in the last decade of that period. The com bined capital of all the railways greatly exceeds the national debt in amount. There are many small lines, but these are nearly all operated by one of the eleven large companies which control almost the entire mileage of Great Britain. Of these, the Great Western has the greatest mile age; the largest tonnage of goods is booked by the North Eastern; and the largest number of passengers is carried by the Great Eastern. Parliament recognizes "nothing in the nature of a vested interest as attaching to railways," and privileges granted may be withdrawn when they cease to be consistent with the general advantage. No official step has been taken toward Govern ment ownership. A railway commission of three members has final decision in questions of fact that arise in the administration of the railways. Their decisions on questions of law are subject to appeal.