Flax and its manufacture have long been known in Great Britain and Ireland. The art of manufacturing the fibre seems to have been introduced by the Belga), and the existence of a manufactory of woollen and linen cloth at Yenta Belgarum (Winchester) is recorded in the Notitia Imperil.' During the troubled period following the withdrawal of the Romans, the art• rapidly fell iuto decay, and it was not until the Saxons had established their dominion that atten tion was again directed to the manufacture of wool and flax. Before the close of the 7th century, weaving had made great progress, and the Anglo-Saxon females had gained wide repute for their skill. Records show that the materials chiefly or solely used were wool and flax, fabrics manu factured from the latter fibre being worn as under-garments by all persons of moderate rank or wealth. In the interval between the 7th century and the Norman invasion, further progress was made; the Bayeaux Tapestry commemorating that event has for its foundation a linen fabric, 20 in. wide and 214 ft. long, the figures being worked in with dyed woollen yarns. Among the invaders, were many Flemish weavers, who were subsequently followed by others of their countrymen ; and guilds or fraternities of these artsians were soon founded. In 1253, fine linen was first made in Wilts and Sussex ; and in 1272, Irish linen was in use at Winchester. In Wales, the manufacture was established at an early date, records stating that, in the commencement of the 14th century, linen was a common article of wear. Fine linen was at this time imported from Rheims. The linen industry fluctuated greatly during the next three centuries, sometimes being stimulated into considerable activity and growth, and again left to neglect and decay. At the commencement of the 18th century, it had obtained a position of great importance, and those engaged therein, in conjunction with the woollen manufacturers, were sufficiently powerful to obtain the passing of many protective or prohibitive laws directed against foreign goods, especially the calicoes and muslins of India. The introduction of the cotton manufacture soon after this time had a depressing influence upon the linen trade. At first, cotton yarns were only used for weft ; but after Arkwright's invention had been perfected, they were made strong enough to serve for warp purposes, and the growth of the cotton trade subsequently almost destroyed the linen manufacture, both spinners and weavers turning their attention to the new fibre, and engaging in the production of the new and popular fabrics. Since that time, in England it has been a decaying industry, and at present there is little of it surviving.
In Ireland, the course of the linen manufacture has been in a great measure parallel with that of this country. For a long period, the country was noted for the production of the raw material, much of which was exported to England in the fibre, and also in yarn ; here it was woven into cloth, and to some extent returned again for sale. Towards the middle of the 17th century, linen manufacturing was thoroughly established in the island ; Ireland had also at that time a con siderable woollen trade, but this was discouraged for political reasons, and the linen trade was stimulated by every available means. From the beginning of the 18th century, its course has been one of steady progress, and, owing to the comparatively early adoption of machinery in the different processes, the present century has witnessed a great expansion.
In Scotland, linen manufacturing was established at a very early date, and was often encouraged by the Government. It also suffered the usual fluctuations incident to favouritism. The industry was spread over almost the whole of the country, and attained, owing to the introduction of Flemish and other skilful weavers, a high degree of excellence. More recently, when machinery
became generally adopted, it concentrated in the localities which have since acquired repute for their excellent productions. Of late years, however, the linen trade has to some extent been over shadowed by the progress of the jute manufacture.
In all the countries ancient and modern over which the cultivation and manufacture of flax extended, the implements in use, until towards the close of the last century, were of the simplest kind. The excellence of ancient textiles was the result purely of skilful manipulation. It was not until the Greek and Roman periods that any real advance was made in the art of manufacturing linen. The method of spinning then adopted was to make a loose ball of the fibre, into which the distaff was inserted, the lower end being held under the arm in such a position as to allow of the fibre being conveniently drawn off by the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand. The spindle, on its lower extremity, had a whorl of wood or other material, by which it was kept steady, and its rotation was assisted. The upright loom seems to have been preferred. The stamen or warp was Passed over a cross-beam or rail on the top of the loom, and kept in a state of tension by being divided into sections, with stones suspended from each. A set of lease-rods were used to separate it into equal portions, the threads alternating on each side, as in the modern method. The heddles were formed of threads, fastened at one end to a straight rod, and having at the other end a ring or loop, each containing a thread of the warp. The number of these varied according to the texture of the cloth. The weft was carried on a spindle or bobbin. In weaving, the shed was formed by drawing one or more leaves of the heddles forward at one time, and passing the pirn through the open shed. The tension upon the warp drew these back into their first position, when the next iu order were drawn forward in a similar manner, the weft was again inserted, and the operation was repeated. Each thread of weft was passed to its position by the pecten or comb, which fulfilled the office of the modern reed. The teeth of the comb were inserted between the threads of the warp, and thus made to drive the pick of weft close to the preceding one, in order to obtain a firm cloth.
No important improvement took place in the means or processes employed until the invention of the hand spinning-wheel. The first step beyond the distaff and spindle, which had sufficed for the necessities of mankind throUgh many centuries, was the invention of a rude frame for holding both these instruments, thus relieving the operator's hands for other duties. This arrangement, about the commencement of the 16th century, was much improved by having the spindle mounted for driving by a belt from a large wheel turned by hand. A treadle was soon after added for working it by foot. The form of the loom, too, had undergone a great change, having assumed one which allowed the warp to be arranged horizontally in the frame. The healds were modified so as to admit of being worked by foot-levers or treadles, and the batten or slay containing the reed was suspended inside the frame from the top, and made to oscillate upon centres. This enabled the weaver to drive home every pick of weft with greater facility, speed, and ease than by any previous arrangement, and tended greatly to increase the production. The shuttle was passed through the shed from hand to hand, as before, and when wide cloths were being made, two weavers were required to operate one loom. As linen and woollen were the only two fibres wrought to any important extent, both branches of the industry appropriated these improvements in nearly every country, as soon as the limited intercourse between them would allow.