1861.—Juarez entered Mexico City on Jan. 11, 1861, and at once took under consideration Mexico's internal problems. The Spanish minister, the papal legate and members of the episcopate were expelled. In return for British recognition Juarez acknowledged as valid British claims—includ ing a new loan—totalling nearly $70,000,000. Steps were taken to enforce the decrees of 1859 disestablishing and disendowing the church. The financial difficulties, however, seemed insuper able. Mexico's acknowledged indebtedness to Europe alone ex ceeded $82,000,000. In addition there were the indefensible Jecker claims which the French Government now backed up. Juarez, however, would recognize as valid only the cash actually received by MiramOn from Jecker. Finally, the Congress de creed (July 17, 1861) the suspension for two years of interest payments on the external national debt. This was the occasion for the French minister to ask for his passports and for the British minister to suspend diplomatic intercourse with the Juarez Gov ernment. These events fitted in with the ulterior designs of Na poleon III., who was influenced by his Spanish wife, by the great landowners and by the exiled Mexican Clericals to interest him self in the cause of centralized monarchy and the church; in ad dition, he was ambitious for political and commercial reasons to establish French hegemony in Spanish America. Finally a con vention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint inter vention in Mexico was signed in London on Oct. 30, 1861. Juarez succeeded in negotiating a separate arrangement of the British claims but this was rejected by the Mexican Congress ; the assist ance of the United States with a small loan, Mexican territory being demanded as security, was also rejected. In mid-December Veracruz was occupied by Spanish troops ; the French fleet and troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold the Gulf ports until claims were satisfied by collection of duties; Great Britain sent ships, and landed 700 marines. In view of the unhealthiness of Veracruz, the convention of Soledad was con cluded with the Mexican Government; it permitted the foreign troops to advance inland to more healthful sites pending a claims conference in April, and incidentally recognized the Juarez Gov ernment. But as the French harboured leaders of the Mexican. Conservatives, pressed the Jecker claims and showed an unau thorized disposition to interfere in Mexican domestic politics, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces in April 1862. More troops were sent from France. Their advance was checked by Zaragoza and Diaz at Puebla on May 5 (Battle of Cinco de Mayo) ; and in Sept. 30,00o more French troops arrived under Gen. Forey. Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their ad vance (Feb. 17, 1863), reduced Puebla, and on June 7 entered Mexico City which had been abandoned by the Juarez Govern ment. A provisional government of Mexican Conservatives, nomi nated by the French minister Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown, at Napoleon's instance, to Maximilian of Austria, brother of Emperor Francis Joseph, and, in case of his refusal, left its disposal to Napoleon III.
Maximilian, after being endorsed in a nominal Mexican plebiscite, renounced his Hapsburg rights of succession and accepted the Mexican crown. He reached Mexico City on June 12, 1864, where he found the greater part of the country already occupied by the French and reactionary troops, the Juarez Government finally being obliged to transfer to Paso del Norte on the Rio Grande. But the empire was unstable from the beginning and gradually Maximilian came to realize that he was little more than a pawn of a political faction sustained by foreign troops. Maximilian had liberal ideals and his efforts to conciliate the republican opposition and to form a coalition cabi net of Liberals and Monarchists, together with his refusal to re store the church property that had been nationalized by Juarez, cost him the support of his original backers; and, when pressed for funds, he could obtain loans only on the most disadvantageous terms. Nevertheless, Maximilian's troops met with some notable
successes. In the south Diaz was driven from Oaxaca in Feb. 1865 and in the north the condition of the Juarists became des perate. But no matter how hard pressed, Juarez was unyielding and the Republicans, defeated in open battle, resorted to guerrilla war. In desperation, Maximilian issued a decree on Oct. 3, 1865, which authorized the court-martial and summary execution of any rebel and the fining and imprisonment of anyone aiding the rebel cause. This decree was later made the basis for convicting Maxi milian of murder and thus prepared his own fate.
Maximilian's rule was short but primarily for reasons disasso ciated with Mexican internal affairs. In view of the Monroe Doc trine, the realization of Napoleon's dream and Maximilian's ten ure alike depended on the triumph of the Southern Confederacy. With the Union triumphant in 1865, the Secretary of State, Seward delivered an ultimatum to Napoleon that wrung from him early in 1866 a promise to withdraw his soldiers from Mexico. Other factors contributed to influence Napoleon to yield: the an ticipated commercial returns from the Mexican venture had not materialized and the French tax-payers loudly protested against its cost ; at the same time Bismarck's aggressions against Austria caused Napoleon to desire to have his troops at home. In despera tion Maximilian vainly attempted to placate estranged Clericals; then his wife, Charlotte of Belgium undertook to dissuade Na poleon from withdrawing his support. Finding Napoleon obdurate and the pope, to whom she appealed, unable to aid her, she be came permanently insane, dying in 1927. With the last of the French troops withdrawn early in 1867, Maximilian's downfall was hastened. Diaz pushed north to Mexico City while the forces of Juarez besieged Maximilian in Queretaro. There, betrayed as he was attempting to flee. Maximilian was captured (May 15, 1867). He was court-martialled and executed on June 19, 1867.
downfall of Maximilian made pos sible the definite establishment of a republican and federal form of government in Mexico ; notwithstanding, political stability was longer deferred. Juarez was re-elected in 1867, but his proposal for an extra-legal amending of the Constitution met with popular disapproval; and his reduction of the army aroused discontent among the soldiery. A crop of revolutions followed, but after a partial restoration of order, a general amnesty was decreed (Oct. 13, 187o). A claims convention was signed with the United States (July 4, 1868) and friendly relations were resumed with some European nations. When Juarez stood for re-election in 1871, he was accused of seeking to make himself dictator, and when, after an indecisive election, Congress declared him presi dent, one of the defeated candidates, Diaz, appealed to arms. His revolution was unpopular and had been virtually suppressed when the sudden death of Juarez removed its chief raison d'ętre (July 18, 1872). Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president ad interim, granted general amnesty and called a special presidential election, in which he overwhelmingly defeated Diaz. During his admin istration, commendable progress in suppressing banditry was made, the Veracruz-Mexico railroad was opened, the Juarez measures disendowing the church and separating it from the State were incorporated in the Constitution, and diplomatic relations were renewed with France and Spain. Trouble developed in 1876 when the Lerdists laid plans to control the elections of that year. Diaz again appealed to arms, declaring in the Plan de Palo Blanco for the sanctity of the Constitution and the principle of no re election. Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz, after a campaign of dramatic incidents that culminated in the battle of Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876), and was forced into exile together with the dissenting president of the Supreme Court, Iglesias. After a short provisional term, Diaz was installed as president on May 5, 1877. The following year the Constitution was amended so as to prevent the re-election of executives.