In marked contrast to the political instability of the past, the history of Mexico from 1876 to 1910 was almost void of politico military strife. Diaz's policy was to keep down disorder; to cen tralize authority in his own hands ; to foster railway development and economic progress—in large measure by attractive conces sions to foreign capital ; to develop native manufactures by pro tective tariffs; to introduce new industries; to promote forestry; to improve education—principally in urban centres; and, above all, to place the national credit on a sound basis. By 1910 most of these aims had been realized. Summary extra-legal executions of malefactors and political conspirators—notably a group of alleged conspirators in 1879—and the policing of the country by a unique and efficient rural gendarmerie contributed to the disappearance of the old revolutions. Also several formidable uprisings of Indians— as the Mayas in Yucatan and the Yaquis in Sonora—were sup pressed with great severity. Centralization was effected by Diaz assuming the right to nominate either directly or indirectly, for all Federal, State and municipal offices; by his influence upon bills while being drafted and considered in Congress ; and by the def erence to his wishes of the members of the Supreme Court in all cases affecting the Government or political matters. Railroad mileage increased to more than 15,000 m. by 1910. Textile fac tories in 1910 numbered 135 and employed 33,00o hands. Mex ico's foreign trade in 191o, totalling more than 450,000,000 pesos, was nearly ten times that of 1873; the modern harbour of Vera cruz was finished in 1902; nearly a billion dollars of gold were mined between 1870 and 1909; in 19ro Mexico ranked second in the production of copper; the oil industry at the close of Diaz's administration was a growing industry. The number of children in the public schools by 1906 had increased to 615,134, and, for the year 1910, in addition to State support, the Federal Govern ment appropriated 7,000,00o pesos or 6.i% of its total budget, for education. In the realm of public finance notable progress was made. Foreign obligations were adjusted and refunded ; the tariff was made protectionist ; the monetary standard was changed from silver to gold; the hated tax on sales (alcabala) was abolished; the budget was balanced, reserves created and new loans effected.
Finally, Diaz, through his conduct of foreign relations, had raised Mexico to a proud position among the nations. In 1877
only six and in 1910 no fewer than 42 foreign Governments had representatives in Mexico. Early relations between Diaz and the United States were strained, due to the temporary refusal of the United States to accord recognition and to border disturbances. These differences were satisfactorily adjusted and after 1888 dis putes with the United States were transient. A crisis with Guate mala over the boundary was averted in 1895. The same year, in the difficulty between the United States and England over the Venezuelan boundary, Diaz expressed strong adherence to the Monroe Doctrine in principle, and suggested that its maintenance should be undertaken by all American Powers. In 1906 and 1907 Diaz co-operated with President Roosevelt in mediating success fully between Central American belligerents and took part in the establishment of the Central American Court of Justice. The second Pan American Congress met in Mexico City in 1901.
Successful and beneficent as had been some of the policies of Diaz, others had been reactionary and prejudicial to the best in terests of the country. Particularly disastrous in their effect were the land policies of Diaz. A presidential decree in 1890 expro priated and allotted in severalty the theretofore inalienable till able lands of the villages known as ejidos—or communal lands which had long constituted the principal means of independent support of the majority of the sedentary Mexican Indians. The reactionary land law of 1894 legalized the squandering within a few years of a vast national domain. The combined effect of the above-cited decree and law was highly favourable to the landed aristocracy and unfortunate to the masses. By 1910 a total of 96.9% of the rural heads of families owned no real property. Of that in the possession of the other 3.1% was owned by fewer than 1,000 powerful landholders whose estates varied in size up to 6,000,000 acres. Furthermore, approximately io,000,000 In dians (probably three-fifths of the population), in addition to losing their communal lands, had become serfs. In short, the con dition of the masses in 1910 was even more deplorable than it had ever been. Under such conditions Mexico's third great socio economic upheaval was inevitable and at hand. Other errors of Diaz may be briefly described. Rural education was almost com pletely ignored. The reform laws were not observed. The church made a partial economic and political recovery, living a precarious existence by executive clemency. Foreign concessionaires were so favoured that national resentment was deeply stirred. An his toric principle that had been followed continuously during the colonial and national periods down to 1884 was reversed and by the mining laws of that year, 1892, and 1909, surface owners were given the right, without governmental approval, to exploit subsoil deposits which formerly had belonged first to the king and later to the nation. Finally, the Diaz Government had become a closed political corporation, although there were many who were qualified for participation in governmental affairs.