MINORITIES, the protection of racial, linguistic and re ligious minorities in the sphere of international law. Such pro tection is not an innovation introduced by the treaties concluded at the end of the World War. Diplomatic history affords several examples of treaties containing special clauses which aim at pro viding certain guarantees for groups of the population of a dif ferent race, language or religion from that of the majority of the population of the State to which they belong. (X.) The World War has been described as a "War of Nationalities." At any rate, it resulted in the overthrow of four empires, and the creation in Europe of a number of new or greatly enlarged States, which were based on the principle of nationality. This process was imperfectly carried out, partly because its complete applica tion is impossible in a continent where the nationalities are so mixed, and partly because the victors refused in some cases to apply it to their disadvantage. Nevertheless, many of the previous minorities became majorities in the newly organized States, and others were able to coalesce with men of the same nationality already organized in a State. Naturally so great a reversal of con ditions has created difficult problems, which can only be under stood by a reference to history.
Since no State is comprised of an absolutely homogeneous mass of people of the same race and religion, there have always been "minorities" of one kind or an other. In the middle ages there were religious minorities, such as the Albigenses in southern France, which developed an organiza tion of their own, so strong that they were considered specially dangerous and suppressed by the Church by special means. After the Reformation had completely disrupted the religious unity of Europe, religious minorities were present in all States and were treated with great rigour in the majority of them. In some cases the ruler tried to enforce the religion of a minority, but in nearly all cases this failed, and the religion of the majority was adopted as that of the State and that of the minority forbidden. After
1648 the religious position was stabilized and played a less im portant part and gradually in some countries the idea of toleration of religious belief grew up. But to the end of the 19th century there was always a tendency in some States to deny full religious equality to minority sects.
Meanwhile, minorities of another and even more disruptive kind had been growing up. From the end of the 18th century onwards the idea of nationality, which had long been in existence in western Europe grew immensely stronger and penetrated throughout the Continent. The exact causes of this great increase in national feeling are not exactly known. It can be partially traced to the French Revolution, whose ideas were carried all over Europe by Napoleon's armies but perhaps, the most important cause was the spread of education. Dormant nationalities were awakened or made much more self-conscious by teachers, who, drawn largely from the middle class, and in revolt against the aristocratic and semi-feudal government, which still persisted in many parts of Europe, used the national feeling as a means of revolt against rulers, who were often of another na tionality. The universities, some of which were newly founded, were sometimes the centre of such movements, and the professor was their prophet. The historians, especially, by reviving a knowl edge of periods in which the racial minorities had played a great part, had a great effect on their compatriots. Moreover, the change in industry and transport enhanced the efficiency and im portance of the State machine. The unit became larger and men no longer thought in terms of their village or county. Their con tacts with officials at a distance became more numerous especially after the extension of railways. Both this cause, and the spread of education made language assume a new importance. It was irk some to be governed by men who could not be understood, and impossible to be educated by them.