Hitherto a vassal of Mangu, as is shown by his striking coins bearing the name of Mangu as well as his own, Hulagu was now recognized as ruler of the conquered provinces. He assumed the title of ilkhan, and, although acknowledging the khagan as supreme lord, was practically independent. The title of ilkhan was that borne by his successors, who ruled over Persia for about a century (v. infra, "The Ilkhans of Persia").
While Hulagu was prosecuting these conquests in western Asia, Mangu and his next brother Kublai were pursuing a like course in southern China. Southward they even advanced into Tong-king, and westward they carried their arms over the frontier into Tibet. Under the wise command of Kublai all indiscriminate massacres were forbidden, and probably for the first time in Mongol history the inhabitants and garrisons of captured cities were treated with humanity. While carrying on the war in the province of Szechwan Mangu was seized with an attack of dysentery, which proved fatal after a few days' illness. His body was carried into Mongolia on the backs of two asses, and, in pursuance of the custom of slaugh tering everyone encountered on the way, 20,000 persons were, according to Marco Polo, put to the sword.
At the Kuriltai, or assembly of notables, which was held at Shang-tu of ter the death of Mangu, his brother Kublai (see KUBLAI KHAN) was elected khagan. For 35 years he sat on the Mongol throne, and at his death in 1294, in his 79th year, he was succeeded by his son Timur Khan (or Uldsheitu Khan, Chinese, Yuen-cheng). During this reign the division between the Ogdai and Jagatai families and that of the ruling khagan was healed.
Uldsheitu was succeeded by his nephew Khaissan, who died in Feb. 1311, after a short reign, and at the early age of 3i. His nephew and successor, Buyantu (Chinese, Yen-tsung), was a man of con siderable culture, and substan tially patronized Chinese litera ture. Among other benefits which he conferred on letters he res cued the celebrated inscription-bearing "stone-drums," which are commonly said to be of the Chou period (1122-255 B.C.), from the decay and ruin to which they were left by the last emperor of the Kin dynasty, and placed them in the gateway of the temple of Confucius at Peking, where they now stand. After a reign of nine years, Buyantu was succeeded by his son Gegen (Chinese, Ying tsung), who perished in 1323 by the knife of an assassin. Yissun Timur (Chinese, Tai-ting-ti), who was the next sovereign, devoted himself mainly to the administration of his empire. He divided China, which until that time had been apportioned into 12 prov inces, into 18 provinces, and rearranged the system of State granaries, which had fallen into disorder. His court was visited
by Friar Odoric (q.v.), who gives a minute description of the palace and its inhabitants.
The following years were years of great natural and political convulsions. In 1355 a Buddhist priest named Chu Yuen-chang became so impressed with the misery of his countrymen that he threw off his vestments and enrolled himself in the rebel army. His military genius soon raised him to the position of a leader, and with extraordinary success he overcame with his rude levies the trained legions of the Mongol emperor. While unable to defeat or check the rebels in the central provinces, Toghon Timur Khan was also called upon to face a rebellion in Korea. Nor were his arms more fortunate in the north than in the south. Toghon Timur, by a hasty flight, escaped from his enemies and sought safety on the shores of the Dolon-nor in Mongolia. For a time the western provinces of China continued to hold out against the rebels, but with the flight of Toghon Timur the Mongol troops lost heart, and in 1368 the ex-Buddhist priest ascended the throne as the first sovereign of the Ming or "Bright" dynasty, under the title of Hung-wu.
Thus ended the sovereignty of the house of Jenghiz Khan in China. Brave and hardy the Mongols have always shown them selves to be ; but the capacity for consolidating the fruits of vic tory, for establishing a settled form of government, and for gaining the allegiance of the conquered peoples, has invariably been wanting in them.
Not content with having recovered China, the emperor Hung wu sent an army of 400,000 men into Mongolia in pursuit of the forces which yet remained to the khagan. Even on their own ground the disheartened Mongols failed in their resistance to the Chinese, and at all points suffered disaster. Meanwhile Toghon Timur, who did not long survive his defeat, was succeeded in the khaganate by Biliktu Khan, who again, in 137g, was followed by Ussakhal Khan. During thR reign of this last prince the Chinese again invaded Mongolia, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan's forces in the neighbourhood of Lake Buyur. This defeat was the final ruin of the eastern branch of the Mongols, who from this time surrendered the supremacy to the western division of the tribe. At first the Keraits or Torgod, as in the early days before Jenghiz Khan rose to power, exercised lordship over the eastern Mongols, but from these the supremacy passed to the Oirad, who for so years treated them as vassals. Notwithstanding their sub jection, however, the Keraits still preserved the imperial line.