Mongols

The Ilkhans of Persia.

The empire of the ilkhans established by Hulagu lasted nominally until 1353, but after the death of the ilkhan Abu Said in 1335 the real power was divided between five petty dynasties which had been formed out of the provinces con quered by Hulagu. Meantime Islam had made great progress among the Mongols, the third ilkhan, Nikudar Ahmed (reigned 1281-84), having embraced that faith. Upon the western frontiers of their empire bordering on the Syrian possessions of Egypt there was frequent intercourse, sometimes friendly, sometimes war like, between the ilkhans and the sultans of Egypt (q.v.). Of the petty dynasties which supplanted that of Hulagu, one known as the Jelairids held Baghdad until about 1400. Another dynasty which reigned in Azerbaijan was overthrown in 1355 by the western Kipchaks (v. infra, "Golden Horde"). Between 1369 and 1400 Timur had made himself master of the greater part of Persia and established there a second Mongol dynasty, which in turn gave place to that of the Ak Kuyunli (see PERSIA).

The Golden Horde.—Of the Mongol tribes who became en tirely subject to Russia the principal are those of the Crimea, of Kazan, and Astrakhan; of these the Tatars of Kazan are the truest representatives of the Golden Horde or western Kipchaks, who originally formed the subjects of Batu and Orda. Batu fixed his headquarters on the Volga, and there set up his golden tent from which the horde acquired its name. In 1255 Batu died and was succeeded by his brother, Bereke Khan. During the reign of this sovereign the exactions which were demanded from the Russian Christians by the Mongols aroused the Christian world against the barbarian conquerors, and at the command of Pope Alexander IV. a general crusade was preached against them. The crusaders, lacking unity, were surprised when a Tatar host, led by Nogai and Tulabagha, appeared in Poland. After a rapid and triumphant march the invaders, took and destroyed Cracow, and thence advanced as far as Bythom (Beuthen) in Oppeln, from which point they eventually retired, carrying with them a crowd of Christian slaves.

From this time the Mongols became an important factor in European politics. They corresponded and treated with the European sovereigns, and intermarried with royal families. Hulagu married a daughter of Michael Palaeologus ; Toktu Khan took as his wife Maria, the daughter of Andronicus II. ; and to Nogai Michael betrothed his daughter Irene. Toktu, the second khan in succession to Bereke, is the first Mongol ruler of whom we hear as having struck coins. Those issued during his reign bear the mint

marks of Sarai, New Sarai, Bulgar, Ukek, Khwarizm, Krim, Jullad and Madjarui, and vary in date from 1291 to 13 I 2.

The adoption of Islam by the rulers of the Golden Horde drew closer the relations of the Mongols with Constantinople and Egypt. Nasir, ruler of Egypt, sent to demand in marriage a prin cess of the house of Jenghiz Khan. At first his request was refused by the proud Mongols, but the present of a million gold dinars, besides a number of horses and suits of armour, resulted in a prin cess landing at Alexandria in regal state in 1319. With that reli gious toleration common to his race, Uzbeg Khan, having married one princess to Nasir, gave another in marriage to George the prince of Moscow. Uzbeg protected the Russian churches within his frontiers, and put his seal to his new religious views by marry ing a daughter of the Greek emperor, Andronicus III. He died in 1340, after a reign of 28 years. His coins were struck at Sarai, Khwarizm, Mokshi, Bulgar, Azak and Krim, and are dated from 1313 to 1340. His son and successor, Tinibeg Khan, after a reign of only a few months, was murdered by his brother, Janibeg Khan, who usurped his throne, which was snatched from him by violence in 1357. As he lay ill on his return from a successful expedition against Persia he was murdered by his son Berdibeg, who, in his turn was, after a short reign, murdered by his son Kulpa. With the death of Berdibeg the fortunes of the Golden Horde began rapidly to decline.

The White Horde or Eastern Kipchak.

While the power of the Golden Horde was dwindling away, the White Horde or Eastern Kipchak, which was the inheritance of the elder branch of the family of Juji, remained vigorous and prosperous. The descendants of Orda, Batu's elder brother, maintained much of the simplicity and vigour of their nomad ancestors, and the throne descended from father to son with undiminished authority until the reign of Urus Khan (136o). Khan Tuli Khoja paid with his life for his te merity in opposing the political plans of his connection with Urus Khan. Toktamish, the son of the murdered man, fled at the news of his father's death and sought refuge at the court of Timur, who received him with honour and at once agreed to espouse his cause. With this intention he despatched a force against Urus Khan, and gained some advantage over him, but, while fitting out another army to make a fresh attack, news reached him of the death of Urus.