Gradually, however, the Mongol tribes broke away from all gov erning centres, and established scattered communities with as many chiefs over the whole of eastern Mongolia. The discredit of having finally disintegrated the tribe is generally attached to Lingdan Khan The Chakhars.—By this time the Mongols had recovered from the disaster suffered at the hands of the first Ming ruler. Driven to the north they retired to the banks of the Kerulen, their original home, but as the Chinese became weaker on the frontier they pushed southward and occupied the Ordos country. The Mongol royal family and their immediate surroundings occupied the Chakhar country to the north-west of the Ordos territory, where they became eventually subjugated by the Manchus who over threw the Ming dynasty in 1644. At times the old vigour and strength seemed to return to the tribe, and we read of successful expeditions being made by the Ordos Mongols into Tibet, and even of invasions into China. The relations with Tibet thus inaug urated brought about a rapid spread of Buddhism among the Mongolians, and in the beginning of the 17th century a Dalai Lama was born among them. In 1625 Toba, one of the sons of Bushuktu Jinung Khan, went on a pilgrimage to the Dalai Lama, and brought back with him a copy of the Tanjur to be translated into Mongolian, as the Kanjur had already been.
Several of the tribes who had originally migrated with those who finally settled in the Ordos territory, finding the country to be so inhospitable, moved farther eastward into richer pastures. Among these were the Tumeds, one of whose chiefs, Altan Khan (Chinese, Yen-ta), is famous in later Mongol history for the power he acquired. During the i6th century he carried on continuous warfare with China, and on peace being made (r571) he was made a prince of the empire. He was as successful also in Tibet, and he brought back Lama prisoners who spread Lamaism through all the Tumeds. Altan died in 1584 and was succeeded by his son Senge Dugureng Timur.
The Torgod.—During the Kin dynasty of China the Keraits, as has been pointed out, were for a time supreme in Mongolia, and it was during that period that one of the earliest recognized sovereigns, Merghus Buyuruk Khan, sat on the throne. A grand son of Merghus was the celebrated Wang Khan, who was some times the ally and sometimes the enemy of Jenghiz Khan, and has also been identified as the Prester John of early western writers. In war he was almost invariably unfortunate, and it was with no great difficulty, therefore, that his brother Ki Wang detached the greater part of the Kerait tribes from his banner and founded the Torgod chieftainship, named probably from the country where they settled themselves. Their history for several centuries con sists of nothing but a succession of wars with the tribes on either side of them, and it was not until 1672, when Ayuka Khan opened relations with the Russians, that the country obtained an even temporarily settled existence. It was necessary, from the position of the territory, to conciliate either the Russians or the Turks. Frequent invasion from the north led to complaints of the tsar's government and friendly relations with the Krim Khan. Ayuka fought his way to Kazan and, having exacted full vengeance, made peace with Russia, confirmed in 1722 at a conference with Peter the Great at Astrakhan. Ayuka was shortly succeeded by his son, Cheren Donduk, whose patent to the throne from the Dalai Lama did not protect him from the plots of his nephew, Donduk Ombo, who drove his uncle to St. Petersburg and seized the throne. Don duk Ombo governed wisely and with vigour, and was succeeded by Donduk Taishi, who went to Moscow to attend the coronation of the Empress Elizabeth and to swear fealty to the Russians. He
was succeeded by his son Ubasha, who, in the war between his two powerful neighbours in 1769 and 177o, gave valuable assistance to the Russians. He determined to migrate eastward with his people, and on Jan. 5, 1771, he began his march with 70,000 fam ilies. In vain the Russians attempted to recall the fugitives, who, in spite of infinite hardships, after a journey of eight months reached the province of Ili, where they were welcomed by the Chinese authorities. Food for a year's consumption was supplied to each family; and land, money and cattle were freely distributed. It is believed that 300,00o persons survived to receive the hospi tality of the Chinese. The Torgod prospered, but lost their indi viduality in absorption into the Chinese race.
The KalmuckG.—Among the Mongol chiefs who rose to fame during the rule of the Ming dynasty of China was Toghon, the Kalmuck khan, who, taking advantage of the state of confusion which reigned among the tribes of Mongolia, established for him self an empire in north-western Asia. He died in 1444 and was succeeded by his son, Yi-hsien, who was vigorous and ambitious. He attacked China and took the emperor (Cheng-t'ung) prisoner. Subsequent defeats made him open negotiations for the restora tion of Cheng-t'ung. After Yi-hsien's death the Kalmucks lost much of their power in eastern Asia but still ravaged the Russian borders. In the 17th century Galdan restored some of their authority ; taking advantage of a quarrel between the Black and White Mountaineers of Kashgar, he overran Little Bukhara and left a viceroy there, with his capital at Yarkand. He made an alliance with China and then attacked the Khalkhas, but K'ang hsi decided to support the Khalkhas. The Chinese marched into Mongolia and met Galdan's forces at Chao-modo where they routed them utterly. For a time Galdan strove to turn the tables on the Chinese but he died in the field, unsuccessful. Tsi-wang Arabtan, his successor, weakened his power by a dispute with the Russians over Little Bukhara, said to be rich in gold. Peter the Great determined to force his way into the country and to oppose him the Kalmucks assembled in force. Tsi-wang's successor, Amursama, was appointed by the Chinese emperor K'ien Lung, who called him khan of the Kalmucks, and chief of Dzungaria (q.v.). But the real power was vested in Chinese commissioners, and Amursama revolted, dispersed the garrisons stationed in Ili and took Palikun. K'ien Lung sent a large force against the rebel and drove him into Siberia where he died of smallpox. China again absorbed a Mongol tribe, vying with Russia, her chief com petitor in Mongol affairs. The Buriats, who occupied much terri tory on both sides of Lake Baikal, were not absorbed although they became "Russians." The House of Jagatai.—The dominions given by Jenghiz Khan to his son Jagatai were involved in the quarrels between Kaidu and Kublai for the khaganate, but at the beginning of the 14th century Dua, a great-great-grandson of Jagatai, made him self undisputed lord of the whole region. Shortly after Dua's death the Mongols of eastern Turkistan, descendants of those who had favoured the pretensions of Kaidu to be khagan, sepa rated from their western brethren and chose a son of Dua as their khan. Henceforth the Jagatais were divided into two dynasties, the western reigning at Samarkand, the eastern first at Kashgar and later at Yarkand and Aksu. Kazan (1343-46) was the last independent khan of the western Jagatais; thereafter power fell into the hands of amirs, who, however, continued to place a titular khan on the throne. In 1360 Toghluk-Timur, a grandson of Dua and khan of the eastern Jagatais (the kingdom called by the Per sian historians Mogolistan), invaded the territories of the western Jagatais. About this time Timur (q.v.), otherwise Timur-i-leng (Tamerlane), a young amir at the court of the western jagatais, allied himself with the leaders who had dethroned Kazan, and after the death of Toghluk-Timur became by right of conquest khan of both sections of the Jagatais. After Timur's death the two sec tions again divided, while a third kingdom, Ferghana, was held by the Timurids (descendants of Timur). At the beginning of the 16th century all three dynasties were swept away by Mohammed Shaibani, head of the Uzbeg Mongols (v. infra, "Uzbegs").