MOUNTAIN WARFARE IN CIVILISED COUNTRIES In the mountainous parts of Europe the general principles of the art of war lose none of their force. The conduct of operations must be based upon the same strategical and tactical theories as hold good in the plain. In practice, however, both strategy and tactics must be adapted to the features of the terrain, which give rise to appreciable differences between the two types of warfare. These will now be illustrated, with reference to the considerations given below.
(a) The experience of those armies that have been most engaged in mountain warfare, particularly the Italian army, whose knowledge is based on countless operations in the Alps during the World War, protracted study, and continual exercises both before and since the war.
(b) Features common to all the mountainous parts of Europe: the division of the ground by the mountains into self-contained areas—main valleys of strategic importance and secondary val leys of tactical importance, both in varying degrees presenting difficulties to the development of operations; great differences of altitude and an alternation of practicable and impracticable zones; scanty and protracted lines of communication, with a limited capacity, along the valleys ; yet more scanty lateral communica tions; marked atmospheric changes; violent meteorological phe nomena ; and limited resources. Such an environment calls for a special organization; it decides the general character of the operations and influences their strategical, tactical and logistical aspects. The rules given below apply primarily to operations in easier and lower country (mountain operations), but brief re marks will also be made about operations in the high mountains (Alpine warfare) and winter operations.
be easily dismountable so as to be carried as a rule by pack, or sometimes in pieces on light carts or sledges ; high-angle fire is preferable; ammunition sections also should have pack transport, at least in part; men and supplies should be freely allotted for liaison and observation work. Engineers: sapper and miner bat talions furnished with mining apparatus, explosives, drills and portable telpher systems; wireless telegraph, telegraph, searchlight and heliograph sections with portable equipment. Auxiliary Services: kitchens and equipment for portable hospitals are essential; medical corps detachments with plenty of stretchers; supply and evacuation arrangements suitable to mountain roads. General Features of Operations.—The force that can be employed is limited by a logistical saturation-point that cannot be exceeded; with modern technical resources this point is reached less quickly, and large-scale operations can be developed, provided the principle of seeking a decision in the plain is ob served. The strength of the terrain and the consequent difficulty of movement produce a situation favourable to the defensive, which has, however, the great disadvantage of entailing immo bility. Offensive operations are difficult, but highly productive. To overcome the adverse combination of enemy and terrain, manoeuvre and surprise must be employed. The former should be designed to avoid any frontal attack, and should be directed towards the enemy's line of retreat, advantage being taken of the intimate connection between valleys, passes and nodal points of communication. Surprise is favoured by the environment, and assists the development of the manoeuvre. Both are difficult to carry out without a thorough knowledge of the country.