Didactic and Mystical Poetry.—In didactic and mystical poetry too very high standards were reached in the 11th and 12th centuries. The origin of the former class can again be traced back to the times of Firdousi, as the Shah-nama abounds in moral reflections and wise maxims. The first Persian who employed poetry exclusively for the illustration of Sufi doctrines (see Sunism) was Firdousi's contemporary, the renowned Shaikh Abfi Saeid b. Abu'l-Khair of Maihana, of northern Khurasan (967 1049). (See Nicholson, Studies in Islamic mysticism, 1921.) Abu Sa'id initiated the form of quatrains (rubd`i) well adapted to a concise expression of religious and philosophic aphorisms. This literary form was further .developed by the great free-thinker `Omar-Khayydm (q.v.), who moulded in it his original sceptical and hedonistic ideas. The first Persian handbook of Sufiism was composed by 'Ali b. 'Uthman al-Hujviri (d. probably after 1072) ; this Kashf-al-mahjitb or "Revelation of Hidden Things" treats of various schools of Sufis, their teachings and observances (ed. by Zhukovsky, Leningrad, 1926; abridged transl. by Nicholson, 1911). A great saint of the same period, Shaikh `Abdullah Ansdri of Herat (1006-1089) further encouraged the mystical movement by his Mundjat or "Invocations to God," several prose tracts and an important collection of biographies (Tabaqat) of eminent Sufis, based on the Arabic Tabaqat by Sulami (d. 1021), and in its turn serving as ground-work for Jami's valuable Nafahcit-al-uns (completed in 1478, ed. in Calcutta by Nassau-Lees, 1859). One of the earliest ethical mathnavis, with a mystical tinge, is the Hadiqat-ul-haqiqat or "Garden of Truth" composed in i13o by Hakim Sand'i of Ghazni to whom all the later Sufi poets refer as their master. The great est heights of the pantheistic teaching of "Union with God" were attained about the time of the Mongol invasion. The author of the Sifat al-cidab or "Rules of conduct," Najm ad-din Kubra, was slain in 1221 during the sack of Khdrizm (Khiva) by the troops of Jenghiz khan. The great Farid ad-din 'Attar lost his life in his native Nishapur in A.D. I 230 at the age of 114 lunar years. This ascetic Shaikh composed very numerous Sufi works, partly in prose, as the Tadhkirat ul-awliya or "Memoirs of the Saints" (ed. by Nicholson 1905-7), but mostly in verse. Among his mathnavis (some 20 in number), the best known are the Pand-nama or "Book of Counsel" (published several times) and the Mantiq ut-tair or "Speech of the Birds" (ed. by Garcin de Tassy, Paris, 1857, 1863). In the latter, an allegoric poem, the final absorption of the Sufi in the Deity is illustrated by an ingenious parable. The greatest mystical poet of Persia Jalal ad-din Rf.imi (1207-1273) is a direct continuator of `Attar. (See Rumi.) Saecli.—In strong contrast to the poetry of these pantheistic teachers are the works of Shaikh Saldi of Shiraz (d. 1292, see SA m). His Blistan and especially Gulistan, works of unsurpassed mastery, profess less lofty and more practical morals. Both these masterpieces have found comparatively few imitations (Jami's Bandristan or "Spring-garden," Qa'ani's Parishan, etc.), whereas an innumerable host of purely sufi compositions followed in the wake of the works of Sana'i, 'Attar and Jalal ad-din Rumi; see the books of reference mentioned at the end of the present article.
Lyric Poetry.—Lyric poetry has ever constituted one of the most conspicuous elements of Persian literature. One of the full est anthologies, that compiled by 'Ali Quli Valih in 1749, con tains 2,594 biographical notices of Persian poets, mostly lyric. The first landmark on this field is Rudagi (q.v.) who died in A.D. 900. Later Persian poetry, with all its refinement, never regained the natural tone of the Samanid poets. (See above.) As a peculiar phenomenon may be mentioned the curious figure of the dialect-poet Baba Tahir of Hamadan, who was still alive in A.D. 1055. His quatrains composed in a special metre are cap tivating by their freshness and sincere tone and still enjoy great popularity among all classes. (See Heron Allen, The Lament of Baba 1902.) Hafiz and his Epigons.—Speaking roughly, the second and highest stage in the Persian lyrics, corresponding with the post Mongol epoch, is marked by Hafiz (d. 1389). (See HAFIz.) The influence of this Lisan al-ghaib, or• the "Tongue of the Invisible," has been enormous. Hardly any Persian poet has escaped the spell of his sweet voice veiled by some placid yearning for things un earthly. But this predominant influence has been fatal for the epigons. As time went on, Ynannerism and tradition more and more asserted their right in Persian poetry.
More or less contemporary with Hafiz was Salman of Sava (130o-1378), the panegyrist of the Jalair Uvays, amusing in his irony, graceful and inventive in his conceits. To a still later Timu rid epoch belongs the last Persian classic Jami, of Jam in Khura san (1414-1492). Apart from his seven great mathnavis and nu merous compositions in prose, he is the author of as many as three divans. His lyric poems, though mostly in a mystical vein, are written in a clear and direct style devoid of artificial subtleties, but there is no great personal note in them.
Later Persian Poets.—Curiously enough, under the Safavi dynasty, which gave a powerful impulse to such arts as architec ture and painting, one finds in Persia proper very few poets of mark. One of the exceptions is the poet-laureate of 'Abbas II.,
Sa'ib of Tabriz (d. 1677), whose ghazals are full of vivid similes and original maxims. In the 18th century, the scarce poetical productions of Hail of Isfahan (d. about 1784) are pleasant and fresh : in his celebrated tarjit-band (a strophic poem) he ingeni ously conveys the idea that a Unique Truth permeates all the Religions. Under the Qajar dynasty (19th century) lived Qa'ani of Shiraz (d. 1853), perhaps the most brilliant and melodious among the poets that Persia has ever produced, though rather indifferent in the choice of his subjects.
Persian Poets in India.—Persian poets who lived in India need special notice. The highest fame was gained by two poets of Delhi : Amir Hasan (d. 1327) and especially Amir Khusrau (d. 1325), who lived at the court of the Khilji kings. Amir Khusrau composed no fewer than five divans and nine large math navis, equally remarkable for the rich imagination and the graphic style of their author. Among the poets of the later Moghul times were Faidi (d. soo); `Urfi (d. 1590); Nauci (d. 161o), and many others. Most of the Persian poets of the i6th and 17th centuries spent their lives in India. Thanks chiefly to the Emperor Akbar's (1556-1607) enlightened encouragement, many standard works in Sanskrit, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabhdrata, the Bhagavat-Gitd, the numerous Purcinas and Upanishads were translated into Persian. Indian folk-lore and fables (Kalila-va Dimna, Sindbdd-nama, TO-llama or the "Tales of a parrot") have ever been popular in Persia.
History.—Persian prose literature presents manifold interest. The great importance of Persian historical works is now a recog nised fact.
Only a passing mention may be made of the Persians who wrote in Arabic, like ad-Din5.wari (d. A.D. 895), the famous Abu Jacfar Muhammad Tabari (d. A.D. 923), Hamza Isbahani (d. about 961), Abu Mansur ath-Tha'alibi of Nishapur (b. A.D. 961), Abu Nasr `Utbi, the historian of the years A.D. 975-1011, etc. Among the histories written in Persian are Gardizi's Zayn al-akhbar (about A.D. 1050), with some important items on the Turks and India (partly ed. Berlin, 1928) ; Tarikhi Baihaqi by Abi.i'l-Fadl Mu hammad Bayhaqi (d. A.D. 1077), a vivid picture of the times of the Ghaznavid Masefkl; the anonymous Mujmal attavd rikh (written A.D. 1126) valuable for the early history of Persia and the Turkish tribes; the Rdhat as-Sudfir by Muhammad b. 'Ali ar-Ravandi written about A.D. 1203, a history of the Sel juks (ed. by the Gibb Memorial). A particularly brilliant period of Persian historiography is that of the Mongol domination of Persia : 'Ata Malik Juwaini's Jahan-gushd, completed A.D. (ed. by the Gibb Memorial), is perfect both in style and in the accuracy of the author, who held a high office under the Mongols; Minhaj-i Sir5.j Juzjani was also a personal witness of the Mongol invasion, and his Tabaqiit-i Nasiri is especially interesting for the events which occurred in Afghanistan; the Thrikh-i Wassaf completed in A.D. 1312 by 'Abdullah of Shiraz continues the authentic record of an important period but its usefulness is somewhat marred by the tedious redundance of its style. The Idmic-ut-tawdrikh (pub lished in part by Quatremere, Berezin and Blochet) of the famous Rashid ad-din (d. A.D. 1318) , is a vast historical encyclopaedia, such as no single people possessed in the Middle Ages. Rashid ad din utilized the Mongolian archives and in the composition of spe cial chapters was assisted by a Kashmiri hermit, by two learned Chinese and probably by some European monks. Hamdullah Mus taufi's Tarikh-i Gu.sida (ed. Gibb Memorial), written in 1330, is a useful compendium, containing many valuable details of con temporary events. Among the historians of the Timurid epoch the best known (though largely dependent on their predecessors Nizam ad-din Shami and Hafiz-i Abra) are Sharaf ad-din 'Ali Yazdi, author of the Zafar-niima or "Book of victories" (A.D. 1424), and eAbd al-Razzaq Samarqandi (d. A.D. 1482) whose Matlat as-saidain is very valuable for the history of Timur's successors and contains interesting episodes, like the author's journey to India. A younger contemporary of eAbd al-Razzaq was the well-known Mirkhond (q.v.). Khondamir, Mirkhond's grand son, abridged his grandfather's history and wrote his own Habib as-Siyar, documentary for the time of Ismail I., the founder of the Safavi dynasty. Among the numerous historians of the latter, Iskandar-munshi enjoys a merited fame; his eAlamara (his tory of 'Abbas the Great) is full of authentic data on Persia and her neighbours at that memorable time. There exist special his tories of Nadir-shah, Karim khan Zand and the Qajars. The Babi movement and the revolution of 1907 have also had their historians, several of whose works have been published by E. G. Browne. Of great value are special local histories of the prov inces of Iran (Seistan, Herat, Tabaristan, Gilan, Kurdistan, Fars, Shushtar, etc.). Unique in their importance are numerous histories of India, most of which have been described and partly translated in the eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot's History of India (1867 1878).