Persian Literature

Geography.—Many of the Arabian geographers of the 9th and loth centuries were Persians but the oldest geography in Per sian seems to be the Hudiid al-iAlam (the so-called "ms. Tuman sky"), written by an anonymous author of the court of the Fari ghanid, Abu'l Harith of Jurjan (d. soon after A.D. 998). Nasir-i Khusrau left a curious account (Safar-nama) of his journey (A.D. 1046-1052) from Mery across Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine to Egypt and back to Balkh. Of special importance is the geography of the Mongol epoch which forms a part of Ham dullah Mustaufi's cosmographic work called Nuzhat (written in A.D. 1430). Towards A.D. 1420 Hafiz-i Abril completed for Shahrokh his rare geography (nameless) in which the descrip tion of some Persian provinces is accompanied by an epitome of their history. Many valuable additions to Nuzhat al-Quliib are found in Amin Ahmad Razi's important geographico-biographi cal encyclopaedia Haft (A.D. In the year 1831 Zain al-(Abidin Shirvani wrote the final draft of his geographical dic tionary as-siy4at which is based on personal observa tions. Towards the end of the nineteenth century Muhammad Hasan khan Sani` ad-daula started the publication of a historico geographical dictionary Mir'eit al-buldan (4 volumes) ; more in dependent is the same author's Matta' ash-shams, describing, with an archaeological commentary, his journey to Khurasan. Not de void of importance are the diaries of Nasir ad-din Shah's journeys, written under his name in a clear and simple style.

Theological.

Very numerous are the religious and philosophi cal works in prose and verse of the celebrated preacher of the Ismaili (Assassin) doctrines, Nasir-i Khusrau (b. 1003, d. after 1065), q.v. They were imitated by the representatives of nu merous other Persian sects (Hurfifi, Ahl-i Haqq, B5.bi. etc.). In 1092 Abu'l-Ma'ali Muhammad composed the Bayan al-adyan in which are explained the tenets of different religions and sects. To the end of the seventeenth century belongs a similar Dabistan al madhcChib (transl. by Shea and Troyer) written in India by Shaikh Muhsin Fani whose identity is still dubious.

The names of numerous works on theology, astronomy, politics, mathematics, ethics, medicine, lexicography, etc., will be found in the standard catalogues of the great European and Asiatic libraries.

The Drama.

Persian drama is still at the spontaneous and popular stage of semi-religious performances during the month of Muharram, in the style of the mediaeval "mysteries," or the present-day Oberammergau Passion-plays. These taeziya (see DRAMA : Persian) originated in the public lamentations in mem ory of the tragic fate of the house of the Caliph 'Ali, such as were introduced in Baghdad as early as A.D. 963 by the Buwaihid Mutizz ad-Daula. The librettos of the taeziyas belong to little known playwrights. Since the reign of Nasir ad-din Shah a few plays, mostly comedies, have been translated and written in Per sian. Quite popular farces are the so-called shab-beizi or "night plays." The marionette-theatre is also known in Persia under the name of Kachal-Paklavdn or "The Bald Hero."

The Persian Press.—A very important role in the Persian literary movement has been played by the press. The first Persian paper in Tehran appeared in the reign of Fath 'Ali Shah. Some organs founded abroad enjoyed real political influence, such as: the Akhtar or the "Star," Constantinople 1875-1895; the Qanun or the "Law," started in London in 1890 by a former Persian Minister at the court of St. James, Malcom-khan, who advo cated for Persia a constitutional form of government ; the Habl al-Matin, which has been published in Calcutta since 1893 ; and the Kelm (in its first phase, 1916-1920) published in Berlin by the deputy of the first Majlis Taqizada. Great impetus was given to the Persian press by the revolution of 1905-08. Speaking from a merely literary point of view, the press has rendered the language more pliant, simple and popular. Daily papers have revealed such talents as 'Ali Akbar Dakhau, good poet and excellent publicist imitating in his satirical feuilletons the humorous bazar-speech; the poet Malik ash-shu card Bahar, and several others. To the class of magazines belong the Keiva in its last phase (Berlin 192o-21); the Ireinshahr, Berlin whose editor was K5,zim-zada, and three periodicals published in Tehran after 1918: the Ddnish-kada or the "Temple of Know ledge" (ed. Malik ash-shu card), the Armaghan or the "Gift," the Ayanda or the "Future." These last have been the centres round which gathered the young Persian poets and writers, nationalists yet admirers of European culture.

Latest Persian Literature.

The possibility of seeing their work printed without the intervention of a rich patron has been an encouragement to the Persian authors of recent times. Among the poets of the older generation are: Adib-i Pishavari 1930), a learned author, who during the war indulged in the composition of a Qaisar-nama, meaning the "Book of the Kaiser," written in the style of Firdausi ; Adib al-Mamalik (d. 1917), a poet of civic tendencies; traj-mirza (d. 1926), a man of remarkable feeling and talent, who is also known as a champion of the Per sian woman's emancipation. To a younger generation belong Malik ash-shu card, already mentioned, and some others whose lyres are tuned on a vast scale, from the romantic admiration of the great past (Pur-i Davud) to the modern revolutionary war cries (Lahuti).

Promising attempts have been made to create the national novel.

In 1922 Jamal-zada published in Berlin a remarkable volume of realistic tales Yaki bud, yaki =bud, or "Some of it was, some of it was not"; other authors are transplanting on Persian soil the European genres of sentimental and didactic novel, as well as of "roman de boulevard." Several able works have been written by the young Persian economists, literary critics and historians. A very conspicuous figure is that of Muhammad khan Qazvini (b. 1877, resident in Europe since 1904), the learned editor of Juvaini's history and of other important works on history and philology.