The sea around Spitsbergen is shallow, and the ice readily accumulates round the shores. Pack ice prevents access to most shores except for a few months in the year. However, the warm North Atlantic drift sends a branch to the western shores of Spitsbergen, moderating its climate, and leaving an open passage which permits vessels to approach the western coast during most months of the year. The fjords are frozen from October or November to April or May.
Owing to the warm drift the climate of Spitsbergen is less severe than in the corresponding latitudes of Greenland. January and February means range from o° to —8° F, and July means from 38° to 4o° F. Even in the coldest months of the winter a thaw may set in for a few days ; but, on the other hand, snow some times falls in July and August. Spring comes in June; the snow becomes saturated with water and disappears in places, and scurvy grass and willow open their buds. By the end of June the ther mometer has ceased to sink below the freezing-point at night; July, August and September are the best months. In September, however, autumn sets in. The annual precipitation at Green Harbour is 11.6 in. and less in the interior. Winds are generally light except on the west coast and local winds in the fjords. There is mist on the west and around Bear island in summer.
The Greenland whale has disappeared in conse quence of the great havoc made by the early whalers. According to Scoresby, no fewer than 57,590 whales were killed between 5669 and 1775. Reckless extermination of seals also took place. Walruses are now rarely seen in the waters of West Spitsbergen. Birds, also, have rapidly diminished in numbers. The fulmar petrel meets ships approaching Spitsbergen far away from the coasts. It makes colonies on the cliffs, as also do the glaucous gull or the "burgomaster." Rotches, black guillemots, ivory gulls, auks, looms and kittiwake gulls breed on the cliffs, while geese, loons and snipe frequent the lagoons and small fresh-water ponds. The eider duck breeds on the islands, but its numbers have be come noticeably reduced. These birds, however, are only guests in Spitsbergen, the snowy owl and ptarmigan being the only species which stay permanently. Some 6o species have been recorded from Spitsbergen and Bear island; about half of them breed there. Of land mammals, besides the polar bear, the rein deer and arctic fox have been greatly reduced : Norway has pro hibited the slaughter of any reindeer until 1934; before 1868 from 1,500 to 2,000 were killed by hunters in a few weeks of summer.
Vegetation.—The only trees are the polar willow, which does not exceed 2 in. in height and the rare dwarf birch ; and the only bushes are the crowberry and cloudberry. But at the foot of the bird cliffs some loam has been formed notwithstanding the slowness of putrefaction, and there, in contrast with the brown ish lichens that cover the rocks, grows a carpet of mosses of the brightest green, variegated with the golden-yellow flowers of the ranunculus, the large-leaved scurvy grass, the cuckoo flower, many saxifrages, fox-tail grass, etc.; while on the driest • spots yellow poppies, whitlow grasses, and rock roses are found. Even on the higher slopes, 2,50o ft. or more above the sea, the poppy is occasionally met with. In all about 13o species of flowering plants have been found. Although very limited in number, the flora is suggestive in its distribution. Most of the species of flowering plants are found in the flora of Europe while 117 are circumpolar in distribution. Many flowering plants which are common in West Spitsbergen are absent from the east coast, where the cold climate is inimical to both flora and fauna.
Coal has been known since the 17th century but was not mined commercially until the loth century when work began in Advent bay, and progressed slowly there and elsewhere until the development of the coalfields was greatly stimulated during the World War by the scarcity and high price of coal in Scandi navia. The coalmine in Longyear valley, Advent bay, which was under American ownership since 1905, was sold in 1916 to Nor wegians. Several other Norwegian mines have started, notably in King's bay and Hjorth Haven in Advent bay and on Bear island (since closed). Swedish mines were worked in Lowe Sound (Braganza bay) from 1917-25. There are Dutch mines in Green, Harbour. British enterprise, hampered by war conditions, re vived in 1919 in the coal-bearing areas in Klaas Billen bay, Temple bay and Coles bay. By 192o practically all the coal-bearing areas were annexed by one or other company. In 1927 five mines were exporting coal. The total amount of coal exported in 1925 was 413,000 tons, nearly all of which went to Norwegian ports, in cluding some to Narvik for the Swedish railways. A few thousand tons went to Archangel. The coal exported so far is of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages and proves to be good steam coal. Bitumi nous coal of Carboniferous age is available but not yet mined. Mining continues throughout the year but the export season at present is from late April to September.