literature is voluminous. Sir W. Martin Con way in No Man's Land (Cambridge, 5906) details the history of Spits bergen to 5840, tabulates the principal voyages thereafter until 1900, and gives a full bibliography from the earliest time down to 1902. The observations of the Swedish expedition for the measurement of an arc of the meridian were brought together (in French) in Missions scien tifiques pour la mesure d'un arc de meridien an Spitzberg . . . (Stock holm, 5903-06), and those of the Russian expedition under the same title in 1904, seq. (St. Petersburg [Leningrad]) . Other important sources of scientific value are the publication of the Swedish Veten skaps Akademie; Ynter (Stockholm) ; Videnskaps Akademi (Oslo), especially the series of papers on Resultater av de Norske Statsun. Spits. Ekspeditioner (5922– ) ; Albert I., Prince of Monaco's Resultats des campagnes scientifiques, 40, 41 and 45 (5889, etc.) ; and Spitsbergen Papers (Oxford, 1925). Two general works are R. N. Rudmose Brown, Spitsbergen: its exploration, hunting and mineral riches (1919) and F. Nansen, En ferd til Spitsbergen (1920) or Spitzbergen (Leipzig, 1921). G. Isachsen, "Fra Ishavet" in Det Norske Geografiske Selskabs Aarbok (1916-19) gives much information about Norwegian hunters. H. M. Cade11, "Coal Mining in Spitsbergen," Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 6o (1920) and A. Hoel, "The Coal Deposits and Coal Mining of Svalbard" (Oslo, 1925) describe the coal-bearing areas. F. C. Wieder, The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen 1596-1829 (Amsterdam, 1919) has many reproductions of early maps. The mete orological observations at Green Harbour are published annually in Jahrbuch des Norwegischen Meteorologischen Instituts (Oslo). A. Miethe and H. Hergesell, Mit Zeppelin nach Spitsbergen ( i9i I) is note worthy for the excellence of its illustrations, including colour plates. G. Binney, With Seaplane and Sledge in the Arctic (1925), describes recent work in North-East Land. Some of the results of the Norwegian sur veys are collected in Expedition Isachsen au Spitsberg, 1909-1o, Resul tats scientifiques (Oslo, 1916). The geomorphology and geology are
explained by G. de Geer "On the physiographical evolution of Spitsbergen" Georg. Annaler, vol. I. (Stockholm, 1919) and by 0. Nordenskjold in Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie IV., 2b. (Heidel berg, 1921) with bibliography. Spitzbergen-Handbuch (Berlin, 1916) gives full sailing directions. The Spitsbergen Treaty is published in Treaty Series No. 18, Cmd. 2,092 (1924) (R. N. R. B.) Exploration.—It is probable that Svalbard, discovered by the Vikings in 1194, according to the Landnamabok, was Spits bergen, but the discovery was forgotten. Modern knowledge dates from the discovery by William Barents and Jacob Heemskerk, on June 17, 1596. Barents saw parts of the west and north coasts, and he gave the name of Spitsbergen. In 1607 H. Hudson, after visiting Greenland, reached Spitsbergen and reported whales. Bear island, midway between Spitsbergen and the North cape, had been discovered by Barents, and became important as a hunting-ground (for walrus, etc.), after Stephen Bennet's visit in 1603. In 1609 Thomas Marmaduke reached Spitsbergen, and in the following year the first hunting expedition was despatched thither by the Muscovy company under Jonas Poole, on whose report of the abundance of whales on the coast the Spitsbergen whaling in dustry was established in 16ii. Very shortly the Dutch began to take a share in this, and there were frequent collisions between the whalers of the two nationalities, while in 1615 the Danes attempted to claim this part of "Greenland," as Spitsbergen was for a long time considered. England attempted to annex the archipelago, but at length the Dutch became predominant in the whaling in dustry, and in 1623 founded the busy summer settlement of Smeerenburg. This began to decline in about 20 years, as the whales were slowly driven from the bays. Marmaduke discovered Hope island and North-East Land in 1613 ; Edge saw the Wiche islands in 1617; and C. Gillis found Gillis (Giles) Land in 1707. At what period Russians from the White sea district first came to Spitsbergen to hunt walruses, seals, bears, foxes, etc., cannot be known, but the industry had importance before 174o. The Rus sians called the archipelago Griimant, a corruption of Greenland.