Many expeditions have made Spitsbergen their base for polar exploration. The expedition in the "Racehorse" and "Carcass" sent from England in 1773 under C. J. Phipps, was the first having a purely geographical purpose. Phipps mapped the north of Spits bergen and reached 80° 48' N. In 1818 D. Buchan and J. Franklin reached 80° 34' to the north of the archipelago. Captain D. C. Clavering and Sir Edward Sabine in 1823 explored the islands, and Sabine made his remarkable magnetic observations, while Claver ing reached 80° 20' N. Sir William Parry in 1827 reached 82° 40' N. of Spitsbergen on sledges. In the same year the Norwegian geologist, B. M. Keilhau, visited the group. The Swede, Sven Loven, was the first to undertake, in 1837, dredging in Spitsbergen waters. In 1858 Otto Tore11, accompanied by A. E. Nordenskiold and A. Quennerstadt made important observations and brought home rich geological collections. In 1861 a larger expedition led by Torell, Nordenskiold, A. J. Malmgren, and K. Chydenius in vestigated the possibility of measuring an arc of meridian in Spits bergen. The work of the measurement of the arc was completed in 1864 by an expedition led by Nordenskiold, assisted by Malm gren and N. Duner. This expedition was followed in 1868 by that of the "Sofia," under Nordenskiold to the north coast. In the same year the German expedition under K. Koldewey circumnavi gated west Spitsbergen. In 1870 two young Swedes, Drs. A. G. Nathorst and H. Wilander, examined the phosphoric deposits at Cape Thordsen, and two years later a colony was formed and a small tramway constructed to work the beds. The attempt, how ever, did not prove successful. Leigh Smith and the Norwegian, Captain E. Ulve, visited and mapped parts of east Spits bergen in 1871, and reached 81° 24' N. In the same year the first tourist steamer visited the archipelago. In 1872 an expedition under Nordenskiold wintered in Mossel bay, hoping to set out for the Pole in spring. This project had to be abandoned, and Nordenskiold explored North-East Land and crossed the vast ice sheet which covers it. The expedition returned in 1873. In 1882 the Swedish geologists, A. G. Nathorst and G. de Geer, made a journey in Ice Fjord which furnished interesting data about the geology and flora of the islands. In the same year a Swedish meteorological station was established at Cape Thordsen for car rying on the observations desired by the international polar com mittee. The expeditions of Gustaf Nordenskiold in 1890 and the circumnavigation by Nathorst in 1898, during which the Wiche islands and Giles Land were explored, confined their attentions almost entirely to the coasts. In 1892 C. Rabot made the first serious attempt to penetrate the interior from the head of Ice fjord, exploring a part of the Sassendal; and in 1896 Sir Martin Conway led an expedition which crossed the island for the first time and surveyed the region between Ice Fjord and Bell Sound.
In 189'7 Conway and E. J. Garwood surveyed the glaciated area north of Ice Fjord, and climbed Horn Sund Tind. In the same year S. A. Andree made his fatal balloon ascent from Danes island with the intention of floating over the Pole. In 1896 a weekly service of Norwegian tourist steamers was established in summer, with an inn at Advent bay. In 1898, 1899 and 1906 the prince of Monaco made scientific investigations in the archipelago, and in 1898-1902 Swedish and Russian expeditions undertook the meas urement of an arc of the meridian. W. S. Bruce, in 1906-07-09, made a complete survey and scientific investigations of Prince Charles Foreland, and in 1920 J. M. Wordie scaled some of its highest peaks, Monaco, Rudmose and Barents. In 1910 W. Filch ner surveyed the glaciated region between Temple and Mohn bays. Every summer since 1906 Norwegian State expeditions, under G. Isachsen, A. Staxrud and A. Hoel, have surveyed in the western side of the mainland, and conducted hydrographic research. King's bay was used by R. Amundsen in his unsuccessful flight to the Pole in 1925, and by him and R. E. Byrd in their successful flights in 1926. G. Wilkins alighted in the Fjord in April 1928 after his flight from Alaska. (See also ARCTIC REGIONS, Explora tion.) Political History.—The question of political control had been discussed since about 1870, mainly by Norway, Sweden and Russia, without any solution being found. Spitsbergen therefore occupied the curious position of being terra nullius. In 1907, how ever, Norway again opened negotiations for an international con ference to decide the question of sovereignty, and one was held at Oslo (Christiania) in July–Aug. 1910, followed by another in 1912, without definite result. In July 1914 a conference which included also representatives of Britain, France, Belgium, the United. States, Holland and Germany tried to devise a form of administra tion consistent with the country remaining a terra nullius, but the outbreak of the World War put an end to the discussions. In 1919 the Supreme Council conferred on Norway the sovereignty of Spitsbergen, including Bear I. and all islands between o° and 35° E. and between 74° and 81° N. The signatories of the treaty were Great Britain and the British Dominions, France, Italy, the United States, Japan, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Ratifica tions were delayed and Norwegian sovereignty did not become effective until Aug. 1925. Russia has since adhered to the treaty. Svalbard is the new name for all islands in the Norwegian sphere in the Arctic, but the names of individual islands are unchanged. Svalbard is deemed a part of the kingdom of Norway and is ad ministered by a governor (sysselmann) and a small staff. Game laws have been made. (X.; R. N. R. B.)