Declaration of Independence

Military Disasters.

Until almost its very close the campaign of 1776 was a disheartening failure. The battle of Long Island was lost by the Americans and, as at Bunker Hill, it would have been quite possible for the British to have captured the entire force which opposed them on Long Island. Howe compelled Washington to evacuate New York city. On Nov. 16 the practi cal abandonment of the State of New York by the main army was necessitated by the capture of Ft. Washington. Earlier in the year the Americans had been compelled to retire from Canada, while the Tories in northern New York were contributing valuable aid to the British.

The Tide Turns.

But there was another side to the picture, and already certain faint outlines of it were being discerned. The British commander was, at practically every step failing to seize the advantages that were within his reach, while Washington was learning to play a losing game with consummate patience and tact.

After Washington had crossed the Delaware, Howe, instead of seizing Philadelphia and driving Congress and the American Army to some remote places of refuge, as he might have done, prepared for winter quarters. Washington seized the opportunity to return across the Delaware and surprise the British outposts at Trenton (Dec. 26, 1776) and Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777), and thus secured a safe post of observation for the winter at Morris town. Confidence was to an extent restored, the larger part of New Jersey was regained, and many loyalists were compelled to take the oath of allegiance. Howe's plan for the next cam paign involved the strengthening of his army by large reinforce ments. With this force he proposed to capture Philadelphia and thereby to bring the War of Independence to an end in Penn sylvania, New Jersey and New York. New England and the states farther south could then be dealt with in detail. But Howe was overruled by Lord George Germain, the colonial secretary, whose plan included an invasion from Canada, in which Tories and Indians should share, while Howe should ad vance up the Hudson and meet the northern forces at Albany. If this ambitious scheme should succeed, the British would occupy the valley of the Hudson and New England would be cut off from the rest of the colonies. Gen. Burgoyne was appointed to com mand the northern expedition. But the failure of the plan was almost ensured from the outset by the neglect on the part of British officials to instruct Gen. Howe as to his part in its execu

tion. Burgoyne was forced to surrender near Saratoga on Oct. 17. Meanwhile, Howe, who had long waited for instructions respecting the northern expedition, was finally informed that he might undertake the Pennsylvania campaign, but with the hope that at its close he would still be able to march up the Hudson. Thereupon, embarking his army, Howe sailed for Chesapeake Bay, at the head of which he landed and advanced towards Phila delphia. Washington's army opposed his march at the Brandy wine (Chad's Ford), but was defeated (Sept. I1, 1777) and forced to retire beyond Philadelphia. The British then entered the city (Sept. 26) and the Congress withdrew to Lancaster, and later to York, in the interior of Pennsylvania. The British fleet had in the meantime arrived in Delaware Bay, and, after a prolonged and brave defence, had captured Forts Mercer and Mifflin. When winter began the Delaware, as well as lower New York and Rhode Island, was in the possession of the British. With the fragments of an army Washington retired to Valley Forge.

French Alliance.

But the influence of Burgoyne's surrender in Europe was to prove a turning-point in the war. Since 1763 a strong sentiment at the French court had been favourable to a resumption of war with Great Britain. An opportunity was now presented by the colonial revolt. In February 1776 Silas Deane was sent to Paris, ostensibly as a business agent, and with the connivance of the French Government supplies were sent to America and American vessels were received into French ports. Soon American privateers were bringing their prizes into French harbours, and British commerce began to suffer from these attacks. On the French side Beaumarchais and others actively co-operated in this. In the autumn of 1776 Congress appointed three commissioners to France, and resolved that Spain, Prussia, Austria and other European States should be approached with a view to securing recognition and aid. In December 1776 Frank lin, who, with Deane and Arthur Lee, had been appointed com missioner to France, arrived at Paris, bringing with him pro posals for treaties of commerce and alliance. But, though the attitude of the French court toward the Americans was friendly.