Turkey took advantage of the respite to strengthen her frontier defences and to reform the janissaries. Russia soon tried to annex Crimea, but a rupture was averted by French mediation, and also by the fact that Turkey was not ready for war. Turkey signed the Convention of Ainali-Kavak, March io, 177o, whereby tin, Rus sian partisan Shahin Girai was recognized as the khan of Crimea, and the terms of the Treaty of Kainarji reaffirmed. Five years later Russia annexed Crimea and Kuban, and Turkey was forced to sign the Convention of Constantinople on Jan. 8, 1784, the stipulations as to the independence of the Tatars in the Treaties of Kainarji and Ainali-Kavak being abrogated. Catherine II.'s triumphant entry into the Crimea and her interview with her ally Joseph II. to discuss the partition of Turkey together with the seditious Russian propaganda in Moldavia, Walachia and Morea created a war party in Constantinople which was sustained and encouraged by the British and Prussian ambassadors. War was declared. The Austrians joined the Russians but were driven back by the Turks from Mehadia, who overran the Banat (1789). The Russians captured Khotin and Jassy and Ochakov, all of whose inhabitants were massacred, including the women and children, by the order of General Suvorov. The news affected Abdul Hamid I. so deeply that he died.
Reform had become so urgent and inevitable that of the two young sultans who succeeded Abdul-Hamid I., one gave up his life for it and the other had to carry out his designs for Western ization by the most sanguinary measures. The ignorance, the despotism or the weakness of most of the sultans disorganised both the autonomous and the centrally governed provinces. Be tween the Treaty of Karlowitz and the Treaty of Kainarji, the absence of discipline among the janissaries and their interference in the internal policy of the state upset the administrative machin ery. The partially self-governed States of Barbary (Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers) had become almost independent, keeping only a nomi nal connection with the empire, and choosing their own chiefs called dayi. The Mamelukes who were allowed to stay in Egypt by Selim the Grim had become stronger, and with the help of the janissaries were taking up a hostile attitude to the Porte. The Mamelukes in Baghdad did the same. The recurrence of the Jelalli insurrections brought forward headstrong governors who ruled the country like feudal lords. In European Turkey the locally elected notables, called cyan, interfered in the administration. This gen eral disorganization was partially remedied by the grand viziers belonging to the Kuprullu family, but it continued worse than ever after them. The system of land tenure of the time of Soli
man was violated. The khas, timar and ziamet were seized by the central government, apportioned to the favourites of the sultans or the viziers and sometimes even sold to the highest bidder and to people who were not able to rule them or take part in their defence. The number of the officials increased, and their short terms of office led to continual disorder. The officials received fees for their services, which made bribery prevalent on a large scale.
During the "long war" of the time of Murad III. the army in creased disproportionately, but its individual units were no longer trained in the barracks and their military value was next to noth ing. The sultans isolated themselves in their palaces, and led lives of pleasure, thus losing contact with the army. They appointed incompetent commanders, and executed them if they were de feated, which paralyzed the initiative of those with a genuine ability to command. As the supply of provisions and ammunition was also in disorder, many deserted from hunger and lack of munitions. Although the army decreased in numbers after the Treaties of Karlowitz and Passarowitz, the leaders of the janis saries would mark any man in the street as a regular soldier, register his name, and put the pay in their own pockets, while the man himself went on with his own work. All attempts so far had failed to remedy these abuses. To make matters worse, the fre quent change of sultans, often brought about by the janissaries themselves, meant accession presents which at times depleted the Treasury. Then the Treasury was refilled by debasing the coinage Science and Industry which were far advanced at the time o Soliman had taken no part in the progress of the 17th and 18t1 centuries but had remained hopelessly mediaeval. The officia class was mostly illiterate, and the cadis who meted out justice were ignorant. The Turks refused to learn any Europeat languages, and knew very little of what was going on in tho world. When necessity arose they used the Christians and Jew! as interpreters and became correspondingly dependent on them Few books on philosophy, mathematics and history were printer in Ahmed III.'s reign. Only literature, especially poetry, flourishes during this decadent age, and most of the greatest Turkish poet: were of this time. Textile industries, being patronized by the sultans, also flourished. The manufacture of implements of wai and ammunition continued, partly because of the artisans who in herited their craft, and partly because of the experts who were brought from the West for the purpose.